Table 3.

Bidirectional relationship between the kidneys and other organs

• Brain and kidneys

– Increased levels of glial-programmed cell death.

– Effects on cerebral blood flow

– Modulation of the neurotransmitters γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)

• Heart and kidneys

– Hypotension

– Decreased cardiac contractility

– Cardiac arrhythmias

• Immune system and kidneys

– Refashioned immune reaction

– Misdirected T-cells

– Increased likelihood of infection

• Hematological system and kidneys

‘COAGULOPATHY’ with reduced platelet adhesion, compromised release of granule proteins, and β-thromboglobulin

• Lungs and kidneys

– Impaired gaseous exchange

– Fluid overload

– Increased inflammatory response

Adopted from ref 70