Table 1.
Repurposed drugs against the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2).
| Drug | Molecular target/mechanism of action | Company | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Acalabrutinib | Can potentially exert antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects | – | [98] |
| Amphotericin B | Blocks the interaction of SARS-CoV-2 S-protein with hACE-2 receptor | – | [99] |
| Anakinra | IL-1 inhibitor; Neutralizes SARS-CoV-2 related hyperinflammation | Swedish Orphan Biovitrum | [97,100] |
| Arbidol | Inhibit membrane fusion; Prevents the viral entry | – | [101] |
| Atorvastatin | Attenuates NF-κB activation; Decreases hazard for death | – | [102] |
| Azithromycin | Mechanism unknown; commonly used as adjunct with hydroxychloroquine | – | [97] |
| Baricitinib | JAK1 and JAK2 inhibtor, Can potentially inhibit SARS-CoV-2 entry | – | [103] |
| Bemcentinib | Can potentially reduce viral infection and blocks SARS-CoV-2 spike protein | BerGenBio ASA, Norway | [98] |
| Bromhexine | Transmembrane protease serine inhibitor | – | [104] |
| Camostat mesilate | Inhibits serine protease | – | [66,105] |
| Chloroquine | Changes the pH of endosomes; Prevents viral entry, transport and post-entry events | – | [106] |
| Cefuroxime | Inhibits the viral RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase | – | [107] |
| Ciclesonide | Exerts antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects; Treated pneumonia and lung injury | – | [108] |
| Ciprofloxacin | Binds to SARS-CoV-2 Mpro; Inhibits viral replication | – | [109] |
| Clarithromycin | Exerts antiviral activity; Inhibits protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit | – | [110] |
| Daclatasvir | Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication in vitro; Prevents the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines | – | [111] |
| Darunavir/cobicistat | HIV protease inhibitor | – | [112] |
| Dasatinib | Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 3CL protease | – | [99] |
| Dexamethasone | Reduces inflammation, modulates immune system | – | [113] |
| Disulfiram | Inhibits 3CL protease | – | [114] |
| Doxycycline | Decreases pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-6, TNF-α; Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 papain-like protease, MMPs; Protects against lung injury | – | [115] |
| Ergotamine | Blocks the interaction of SARS-CoV-2 S-protein with human ACE-2 receptor | – | [99] |
| Favipiravir | Inhibits the viral RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase | Toyama Chemical, Japan | [116,117] |
| Galidesivir | Binds to the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase | – | [118] |
| HCQ | Alters the pH of endosomes; prevents viral entry, transport and post-entry events | – | [97] |
| Imatinib | Suppresses the NF-κB signaling pathway; Stimulates PGE2; Decreases the release of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 | – | [119] |
| Indomethacin | Blocks viral RNA synthesis | – | [120] |
| Interferron γ/β | Inhibits viral replication (SARS-CoV) | – | [121] |
| Ivermectin | Inhibits IMPα/β1-mediated nuclear import of viral proteins | – | [122] |
| Lactoferrin | Exerts immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects; Reduces IL-6 and TNF-α; Inhibits viral entry by binding to the host cell surface HSPGs; Inhibits the SARS-CoV-2 invasion | – | [123] |
| Lopinavir/Ritonavir | HIV protease inhibitor | – | [97] |
| Losartan | Blocks AT1R | – | [124] |
| MEDI3506 | Can potentially treat respiratory failure caused by COVID, IL-33 inhibitor | – | [98] |
| Metformin | May induce activation of AMPK which may casuse phosphorylation of ACE2 receptor, thus interfering with viral entry; Inhibition of mTOR pathway and prevention of immune hyperactivation interference with viral endocytic cycle | – | [125,126] |
| Methylpred-nisolone | Inhibits inflammatory cascade | – | [127] |
| Moxifloxacin | Binds to SARS-CoV-2 Mpro; Inhibits viral replication | – | [109] |
| Nafamostat mesylate | Inhibits TMPRSS2; Prevents viral and host membrane fusion | – | [128] |
| Niclosamide | Inhibits viral replication (SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV) | – | [129] |
| Nitazoxanide | Supresses inflammation; Antiviral effects | – | [97,130] |
| Pirfenidone | Inhibits TNF-α | – | [131] |
| Povidone-Iodine | Exerts virucidal activity | – | [132] |
| Remdesivir | Inhibits the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase | Gilead Sciences, USA | [133] |
| Ribavarin | Binds to the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase | – | [118] |
| Rivaroxaban | Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 3CL protease | – | [99] |
| Sacubitril/Valsartan | Can potentially reduce pro-inflammatory, | – | [134] |
| Cytokines and neutrophil count; Increases lymphocyte count; reduces hs-CRP levels | |||
| Sarilumab | Blocks IL-6 | Regeneron Pharmaceuticals and Sanofi | [97,135] |
| Saquinavir | Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 3CL protease | – | [99] |
| Setrobuvir | Binds to the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase | – | [107] |
| Sildenafil | Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 3CL protease | – | [99] |
| Siltuximab | IL-6 blocker | – | [135] |
| Sirolimus | Modulates PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway and inhibits MERS-CoV activity | – | [97] |
| Sofosbuvir | Binds to the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase | – | [118] |
| Tacrolimus | Inhibits replication of the | – | [136] |
| (FK506) | SARS-CoV, HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-229E | ||
| Tadalafil | Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 3CL protease | – | [99] |
| Telmisartan | Blocks AT1R | – | [124] |
| Tenofovir | Binds to the viral RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase | – | [118] |
| Thymosin α1 | Restores T cell exhaustion; Recovers the immune reconstitution via promoting thymus output | – | [137] |
| Tocilizumab | Inhibits IL-6 | Roche and Chugai Pharmaceutical | [97,135] |
| Vancomycin | Blocks interaction of the SARS-CoV-2 S-protein with hACE-2 receptor | – | [99] |
| Zilucoplan | C5 inhibitor; can potentially block the severe inflammatory response in COVID-19 | – | [98] |
| α-ketoamides | Binds to SARS-CoV-2 main protease (Mpro) | – | [138] |
Abbreviations:
ACE2: Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2, Akt: Protein kinase B, AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase, AT1R: Angiotensin receptor 1, CoV: Coronavirus, COVID-19: Coronavirus disease-19, hACE-2: Human angiotensin-converting enzyme-2, HCoV: Human coronavirus, HCQ: Hydroxy-chloroquine, HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus, hs-CRP: High sensitivity C-reactive protein, HSPGs: Heparan sulfate proteoglycans, IL: Interleukin, IMPα/β1: Importin α/β1, JAK: Janus Kinase, MERS-CoV: Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, MMP: Matrix metalloproteiniases, Mpro: Main protease, mTOR: Mammalian target of rapamycin, NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa B, PGE2: Prostaglandin E2, PI3K: Phosphoinositide 3-kinases, SARS-CoV-2: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-α, 3CL: 3C-like protease.