. 2021 Feb 16;284:119201. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119201

Table 2.

Anti-inflammatory role of spices.

Spices	Active compound/form of use	Disease	In vitro/in vivo	Model	Mechanism	References
Asafetida (Ferula asafetida L.)	–^A	Liver cancer	In vitro	HepG2, SK-Hep1	↓ NF-κB, ↓ TGF-β1, ↑ caspase-3, ↑ TNF-α	[221]
	–^B	Breast cancer	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ LOX	[222]
	–	Breast cancer	In vivo	SD rats	↓ cyt-P450, ↓ cyt b5, ↑ catalase, ↑ GSH, ↑ GST,	[223]
					↑ SOD, ↓ TBARS, ↑ DT-diaphorase
	–^B	–	In vivo	Albino mice	↓ LOX	[224]
Basil (Ocimum sp.)	–^C	Asthma	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ IL-4, ↓ IgE, ↓ PLA₂, ↓ TP, ↑ IFN-γ/IL-4 ratio	[225]
	–^C	Gastric ulcer	In vivo	Swiss albino	↓ TBARS, ↓ NO, ↓ H₂O₂, ↑ GSH, ↑ GPx, ↑ GST,	[226]
				CD1 mice	↑ catalase, ↑ GR, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↑ PGE2, ↑ IL-4
Bay leaves (Laurus nobilis)	–^C		In vitro	BMDMs	↓ p-IκB, ↓ p-STAT3, ↓ pro‐IL‐1β, ↓ procaspase‐1,	[227]
					↓ IL‐1β, ↓ caspase‐1, ↓ NLRP3 inflammasome,
					↓ NF‐κB signaling, ↓ mRNA expression of IL‐6,
					TNF‐α, and iNOS
	–^C	ALI	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↓ MPO activity, ↓ IL‐1β, ↓ IL‐6, ↓ TNF‐α	[227]
	1,8‐Cineole	–	In vitro	BMDMs	↓ IL‐1β, ↓ caspase‐1, ↓ Activation of NF‐κB and	[227]
					STAT3, ↓ mRNA expression of IL‐6, TNF‐α, and
					iNOS
Black cumin (Nigella sativa)	–^C	Lung inflammation	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ TGF-β1, ↓ IFN-γ, ↓ PGE₂, ↑ IL-4, ↑ catalase,	[228]
					↑ SOD, ↓ MDA, ↑ thiol
	–^A	Low-grade inflammation	In vitro	THP-1 cells	↓ IL-1β, ↓ MCP-1, ↓ gene expression of DNMT3A and HDAC1	[229]

	–^C	Diabetes	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ mRNA expression of VCAM-1 and LOX-1,	[230]
					↑ mRNA expression of eNOS
	–^C	–	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ MDA, ↓ NO, ↓ IL-6, ↑ thiol, ↑ SOD, ↑ catalase,	[231]
					↓ AST, ↓ ALT, ↓ ALP, ↑ serum protein, ↑ albumin
	–^A	Allergic asthma	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ IL-4, ↓ NO	[232]
	TQ	AD	In vivo	SD rats	↓ TLR2, ↓ TLR4, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ MyD88, ↓ IL-1β,	[233]
					↓ IRF-3, ↓ NF-κB
Black Pepper (Piper nigrum)	–^C	Asthma	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ IL-1β, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-4, ↓ RORγt, ↓IgE,	[234]
					↓ IL-17A
	–^C	AR	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ E-cadherin, ↑ HO-1, ↑ Nrf2	[235]
	–^C	AR	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ p-YSTAT3, ↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ NF-κB p65,	[236]
					↓ IL-1β
	Pipernigramides	Edema	In vitro	RAW 264.7	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6, ↓ PGE₂, ↓ p-IKKβ	[237]
	Pipernigramides	Edema	In vivo	ICR mice	↓ NO, ↓ neutrophil infiltration	[237]
	Piperine	Lung metastasis	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↓ tumor nodule formation, ↑ survival rate, ↓ SA,	[238]
					↓ GGT
	Piperine	Bacterial sepsis	In vitro	J774A.1, BMDM	↓ IL-1β, ↓ HMGB1, ↓ p-AMPK	[239]
	Piperine	Bacterial sepsis	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↓ IL-1β release	[239]
	Piperine	AP	In vitro	PAC	↓ MPO, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6	[240]
	Piperine	AP	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↓ p-ERK1/2, ↓ p-p38, ↓ p-JNK	[240]
	Piperine	LN	In vitro	HK-2 cells	↓ p-AMPK, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ HMGB1, ↓ pro-caspase-1	[241]
	Piperine	LN	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ NLRP3 inflammasome activitation	[241]
	Chabamide	Inflammation	In vitro	RAW264.7	↑ HO-1, ↑ Nrf2, ↓ iNOS	[242]
Capsicum (Capsicum annum L.)	–^C	–	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ ALT, ↓ AST, ↓ ALP, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↓ LPO,	[243]
					↓ Cu-Zn-SOD, ↓ GPx, ↑ CAT, ↑ Mn-SOD, ↑ GR,
					↓ VLDL, ↑ HDL
	–^C	Asthma	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ IL-4, ↓ IL-5, ↓ IL-13, ↓ nuclear NF-κB p65	[244]
	Capsaicin	–	In vitro	THP-1	↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-α, ↑ LXRα expression	[245]
	Capsaicin	SGI	In vitro	HSG	↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-α	[246]
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)	–^C	Cardiotoxicity	In vivo	Albino rats	↓ NO, ↓ MDA, ↓ NF-κB, ↓ capase-3, ↑ VEGF,	[247]
					↑ catalase, ↑ SOD, ↑ GPx
Celery seeds (Apium graveolans)	–^A, –^C	Hyperuricemia	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ ROS ↑ SOD, ↑ GPx	[248]
	–^C	Gouty arthritis	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ IL‑1β, ↓ IL‑6, ↓ TNF-α, ↑ IL‑10	[248]
	–^A	Gouty arthritis	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ IL‑1β, ↓ TNF-α, ↑ IL‑10	[248]
	Sedanolide	Liver cancer	In vitro	J5 cells	↓ PI3K-I, ↓ mTOR, ↓ Akt, ↑ PI3K-III, ↑ LC3-II,	[249]
					↑ nuclear p53, ↑ DRAM, ↓ cytosolic p53, ↓ TIGAR,
					↑ Beclin-1
	–^C	AD	In vivo	Hairless mice	↓ IL-4, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IFN-γ, ↓ IL-6, ↓ TSLP, ↓ IL-31	[250]
	–^C	AD	In vitro	RAW264.7	↓ NO, ↓ IgE	[250]
	Luteolin	AD	In vitro	RAW264.7	↓ NO	[250]
	–^C	–	In vitro	RAW264.7	↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ NF-κB	[251]
Cinnamon (Cinnamom sp.)	TCA	OA	In vitro	SW1353, HPC	↓ mRNA expression of MMP-1, -3 and -13,	[252]
					↓ mRNA expression of ADAMTS-4 and -5,
					↑ p-IκBα, ↓ NF-κB, ↓ IκBα, ↓ p-JNK 1/2, ↓ p-p38
	TCA	–	In vitro	RAW 264.7	↓ NO, ↓ iNOS	[253]
	TCA	Neuroinflammation	In vitro	BV2	↓ NO, ↓ iNOS, ↓ cox-2, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ IκBα, ↓ NF-κB	[254]
	–^A	Skin disease	In vitro	HDF3CGF system	↓ MCP-1, ↓ MIG, ↓ IP‐10, ↓ IL-8, ↓ VCAM-1, ↓ M-CSF, ↓ PAI-1, ↓ ICAM-1, ↓ EFGR, ↓ MMP-1, ↓ TIMP-1, ↓ TIMP-2	[255]

	–^C	Inflammation	In vitro	Murine macrophage	↓ mRNA expression of TNF-α, ↓ p-p38, ↓ IκBα degradation, ↓ p-ERK 1/2, ↓ p-JNK	[256]
	–^C	Inflammation	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6	[256]
	–^C	Inflammation	In vitro	Splenocytes	↑ IL-2, ↓ IL-4, ↓ IFN-γ, ↓ p-ERK1/2, ↓ p-p38,	[257]
					↓ p-STAT4, ↓ p-JNK
	–^C	Inflammation	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ IFN-γ	[257]
	BCA, HCA	–	In vitro	Murine splenocytes	↓ IFN-γ, ↓ IL-2Rα, ↓ IgM	[258]
	BCA, HCA	–	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ AFC response	[258]
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)	–^C	Inflammation	In vitro	RAW264.7	↓ pro-IL-1β, ↓ PGE₂, ↓ p-MAPK, ↓ NF-κB p65, ↓ cox-2, ↓ NO, ↓ iNOS	[259]

	–^C	CD	In vivo	ICR mice	↓ IL-1, ↓ IL-4, ↓ IL-13, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IFN-γ, ↓ IgE,	[260]
					↑ GSH, ↑ HO-1
	–^C	Arthritis	In vivo	Wistar rat	↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-R1	[261]
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum)	–^E	Hypertension	In vivo	SD rats	↓ mRNA expression of IL-6, Bax, and TNF-α,	[262]
					↑ mRNA of expression TRX1, TRXR1, eNOS,
					and Bcl-2
	–^E	Gastric ulcer	In vivo	SD rats	↓ TNF-α, ↓ MDA, ↑ GSH, ↑ catalase, ↑ ATPase activity	[263]
Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii)	–^C	Pancreatic Inflammation	In vitro	RAW 264.7	↑ GSH, ↓ MDA, ↓ IL‐1β, ↓ IL‐6, ↓ TNF-α	[264]
	–^C	Pancreatic Inflammation	In vivo	Swiss albino mice	↓ MDA, ↑ GSH, ↓ IL‐1β, ↓ IL‐6, ↓ TNF-α, ↑ Nrf2, ↓ NFκB p65 activity, ↓ cox-2, ↓ ICAM-1	[264]
	–^C	Breast cancer	In vivo	4T1-inoculated	↓ NF-κB, ↓ IL-6, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-10, ↓ iNOS,	[265]
				BALB/c mice	↓ ICAM, ↓ c-myc
	Mahanimbine	–	In vivo	Swiss albino	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL‐1β, ↓ IL‐6	[266]
	Girinimbine	Peritonitis	In vivo	ICR mice	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β	[267]
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.)	–^E	IPF	In vivo	SD rats	↑ mRNA expression of Nrf2 and Bcl-2, ↓ mRNA expression of HO-1, TNF- α, IL-1β, IL-6, TGF-β, IL-8, NF-κB, Smad-3, collagen-1, ET-1, Bax and caspase-3	[268]
	–^E	Testicular damage	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ NF-κB p65, ↓ iNOS	[269]
	–^E	Diabetes	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ VEGF, ↓ PKC-β	[270]
	–^D	RA	In vivo	SD rats	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↓ cox, ↓ 5-LOX	[271]
	Trigonelline	AD	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↓ cox-2, ↓ GFAP, ↓ MDA, ↓ LDH, ↓ protein carbonyl, ↑ SOD, ↑ GSH	[272]
Garcinia (Garcinia indica)	Garcinol	Colitis	In vivo	ICR mice	↓ iNOS, ↓ cox-2, ↓ PCNA	[273]
	Garcinol	Colon cancer	In vivo	ICR mice	↓ β-catenin, ↓ VEGF, ↓ cyclin D1, ↓ p-ERK1/2, ↓ p-Akt, ↓ p-p70S6K (Ser371 and Thr389), ↓ p-PI3K	[273]
	Garcinol	HNSCC	In vitro	CAL27	↓ p-STAT3, ↓ p-c-Src, ↓ p-JAK1, ↓ p-JAK2, ↓ NF-κB, ↓ TAK1, ↓ IKK, ↓ cyclin D1, ↓ Bcl-2, ↓ Bcl-xL, ↓ Mcl-1, ↓ survivin	[274]
	Garcinol	HNSCC	In vivo	Athymic nu/nu mice	↓ Tumor growth	[274]
Garlic (Allium sativum)	–^C	Asthma	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ IgE, ↓ IgG1, ↑ IgG2a, ↓ IL-13, ↓ IL-5, ↓ IL-4, ↑ IL-12, ↑ IFN-γ, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6	[275]
	–^C	–	In vitro	A549	↓ IL-6/PI3K/Akt/NF-κB pathway	[275]
	DADS	AP	In vivo	Swiss albino mice	↓ H₂S, ↓ CSE, ↓ MPO, ↓ IκB degradation, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ mRNA expression of PPTA and NK1R	[276]
	DATS	RA	In vitro	RA-FLS	↓ IL-8, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ p-p65, ↓ p-NF-κB, ↓ p-IκBα, ↑ IκBα, ↓ c-myc, ↓ β-catenin	[277]
	DATS	RA	In vivo	DBA/1J mice	↓ IL-6, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ TNF-α	[277]
	SAC	PF	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↓ α-SMA, ↓ p-Akt, ↓ p-p65, ↓ mRNA expression of α-SMA, TNF-α, iNOS, IL-6, IL-12p35, and TGF-β	[278]
	SAMC	ALI	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ MPO, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6, ↓ NF-κB activation ↓ cox-2, ↓ p-NF-κB p65, ↑ Nrf-2, ↑ HO-1, ↑ GSH, ↑ NQO1, ↑ SOD, ↓ MDA	[279]
Ginger (Zingiber officinale)	6-Shogaol	Oral carcinogenesis	In vivo	Syrian hamsters	↓ c-jun, ↓ c-fos, ↓ AP-1, ↓ iNOS, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↓ IL-1, ↓ cox-2, ↓ PCNA, ↓ cyclin D1, ↓ Ki-67	[280]
	6-gingerol	Steatohepatitis	In vitro	HepG2	↓ MCP-1, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6	[281]
	6-gingerol	Steatohepatitis	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↓ MCP-1, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↓ IκBα degradation, ↓ NF-κB	[281]
Ginseng (Panax sp.)	Isofraxidin	ALI	In vivo	ICR mice	↓TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6, ↓ MIP-2, ↓ p-PI3K, ↓ p-Akt	[282]
	–^C	Lung injury	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ p38 MAPKs	[283]
	PNS	HAND	In vivo	SD rats	↓ Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, ↓ caspase-3, 8, and -9	[284]
	PNS	Colitis	In vivo	SD rats	↓ M1 macrophages, ↓ PI3K/Akt, ↑ M2 macrophages	[285]
	NR	Renal injury	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ TNFα, ↓ TGF-ß1, ↓ INF-γ, ↓ IL-6, ↑ IL-10	[286]
	GRg3	RA	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↑ CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺Treg cells, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↑ IL-10	[287]
	GRg1	Lung injury	In vivo	SD rats	↓ TNF-α, ↓ α-SMA, ↓ Collagen I, ↓ TGF-β1, ↓ IL-6, ↓ TGF-βR1, ↓ p-Smad3	[288]
	GRg1	Lung injury	In vitro	MRC5	↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-α, ↓-SMA, ↓ TGF-β1/Smad3	[288]
	Ginsenoside Rd	Ischemic stroke	In vivo	SD rats	↓ NF-κB activity, ↓ IκB, ↓ MMP-9	[289]
Long Pepper (Piper longum)	PL	Leukemia	In vitro	Leukemia	↓ p-p65, ↓ cox-2, ↓ NF-κB activation	[290]
	PL	LN	In vitro	Splenocytes	↓ IL-6, ↓ IL-17, ↓ IL-23, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ p-STAT3, ↓ p-JAK1	[291]
	PL	LN	In vivo	MRL-Fas(lpr) mice	↓ IL-6, ↓ IL-17, ↓ IL-23, ↓ TNF-α	[291]
	PL	RA	In vivo	DBA/1 mice	↓ TNF‑α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL‑23, ↓ IL‑17	[292]
	PL	Asthma	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↓ ICAM-1, ↓ IgE, ↓ MMP-9, ↓ IL-4, ↓ IL-5, ↓ IL-13	[293]
	PL	Asthma	In vitro	Beas-2B	↓ IL-6, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ ICAM-1, ↓ MCP-1	[293]
	PL	–	In vitro	HUVEC	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↓ NF-κB activation, ↓ p-p38, ↓ ICAM-1, ↓ VCAM-1, ↓ E-Selectin	[294]
	PL	Neuro-inflammation	In vitro	BV2	↓ PGE₂, ↓ NO, ↓ iNOS, ↓ cox-2, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↑ IL-10	[295]
	PA	–	In vitro	PBMC	↓ IL-1β, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IFN-γ, ↓IL-2	[296]
	PA	–	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ IFN-γ, ↓ IL-2	[296]
	PL	AD	In vitro	Astrocytes	↓ cox-2, ↓ iNOS, ↓ NF-κB	[297]
	PL	AD	In vivo	ICR mice	↓ NF-κB, ↓ β-, γ-secretases	[297]
	–^C	–	In vitro	HUVEC	↓ ICAM-1, ↓ VCAM-1, ↓ NF-κB activation	[298]
	PL	Atherosclerosis	In vitro	VSMC	↓ NF-κB p65, ↓ p-Akt, ↓ p-ERK1/2, ↓ p-PLC-γ1	[299]
	PL	Atherosclerosis	In vivo	ApoE KO mice	↓ NF-κB p65	[299]
	PL	–	In vitro	HUVEC	↓ TACE, ↓ p-p38, ↓ p-JNK, ↓ p-ERK1/2	[300]
	PL	COPD	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↑ AnxA1, ↓ cox-2, ↓ NF-κB,	[301]
Mint (Mentha sp.)	–^C	–	In vitro	RAW 246.7	↓ MDA, ↓ NO	[302]
	–^C	–	In vivo	SD rats	↓ MDA, ↓ NO, ↓ cox-2, ↓ MAPK signaling	[302]
	–^C	–	In vitro	MH-S	↓ NO, ↓ TNF‐α, ↓ IL-1α, ↓ ROS, ↓ p38, ↓ JNK1/2, ↓ p-JNK1/2	[303]
Mustard seeds (Sinapis alba)	–^C	Ear edema	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ MPO activity, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ ILβ, ↓ IL-6, ↓ mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-6	[304]
	–^E	Psoriasis-like inflammation	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ NLRP3, ↓ ASC, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ caspase-1 and 11, ↓ IL-18	[305]
	–^E	Psoriasis	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↑ CD4⁺/CD8⁺ T cells ratio, ↑ CD4⁺ T cells, ↑ GPx,	[306]
					↓ NF-κB p65, ↓ IFN-α, ↓ IL-17, ↓ IL-22, ↑ SOD,
					↑ catalase, ↓ MDA, ↓ iNOS
Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans)	–^C	Cortical injury	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ iNOS, ↑ HO-1, ↑ Bcl-2, ↓ Bax	[307]
	Macelignan	Asthma	In vivo	C57BL/6J mice, OT-II mice	↓ IL-4	[308]
	Macelignan	Type I allergy	In vitro	RBL-2 H3	↓ PGE₂, ↓ mRNA expression of cox-2, 5-LOX,	[309]
					TNF-α, IL-4, and IL-13, ↑ GSH
	Macelignan	Renal I/R injury	In vivo	SD rats	↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IFN-γ, ↑ catalase, ↑ SOD, ↓ MDA, ↓ Bax, ↓ caspase-3, ↑ Bcl-2	[310]
	Myrislignan	Inflammation	In vitro	RAW 264.7	↓ iNOS, ↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ NF-κB activation,	[311]
					↓ cox-2
	Myristicin	Inflammation	In vitro	RAW 264.7	↓ NO, ↓ IL-6, ↓ IL-10, ↓ IP-10, ↓ GM-CSF, ↓ LIF,	[312]
					↓ MCP-1, ↓ MCP-3, ↓ MIP-1α
Onion (Allium cepa)	–^C	IBD	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ p-ERK1/2, ↓ p-p38MAPK, ↓ p-Akt, ↓ mTOR, ↓ caspase-3, and -8, ↓ cox-2, ↓ cyt-c, ↓ Bcl-xL, ↓ IFN-γ, ↓ TIMP-1, ↓ MCP-1, ↓ MCP-5, ↓ MIG, ↓ MIP-1α, ↓ MIP-2, ↓ ACE-2, ↓ Bcl-2,	[313]
	–^C	APH	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ IL-6, ↓ IL-8, ↓ TNF-α	[314]
	Quercetin	Atherosclerosis	In vitro	VSMC	↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-18, ↓IL-6, ↓TNF-α, ↑ HO-1, ↑ Nrf-2,	[315]
					↑ SOD1, ↑ SOD2
	Quercetin	Atherosclerosis	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↑ SOD, ↑ HO-1, ↑ Nrf-2, ↓ MDA, ↓ p-NF-kB,	[315]
					↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ ROS
	QG, QE	Inflammation, Hyperlipidemia	In vitro	THP-1	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↓ cox-2, ↓ PGE2	[316]
	QE	Inflammation, Hyperlipidemia	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ IL-6	[316]
Rosmary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.)	Rosmarinic acid	Asthma	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ IL-4, ↓ IgE, ↓ IFN-γ, ↓ PLA₂, ↓ TP	[317]
	Rosmarinic acid	Asthma	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ IL-4, ↓ IL-13, ↓ p-JNK/JNK ratio, ↓ p-p38/p38 ratio,↓ p-IκBα, ↓ mRNA expression of Ym2, CCR3 CCL11, AMCase, E-selectin	[318]
Saffron (Crocus sativus)	Crocin	Inflammation	In vitro	H9c2	↓ TNF-α, ↓ PGE₂, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6, ↓ mRNA expression of TNF-α, cox-2, IL-1β, IL-6, NO, iNOS	[319]
	Crocin	Osteoporosis	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ TRAP, ↓ CTXI, ↑ osteocalcin,	[320]
					↑ ALP
	Safranal	Colitis	In vitro	RAW264.7,	↓ NO, ↓ iNOS, ↓ cox-2, ↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ p-ERK,	[321]
				BMDM	↓ p-p38, ↓ p-JNK
	Safranal	Colitis	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ IL-6, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ p-ERK, ↓ p-JNK, ↓ p-IκBα	[321]
					↓ p-p38
	Safranal	AD	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ MDA, ↑ SOD, ↓ NF-κB, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6,	[322]
					↓ IL-1β, ↓ GFAP, ↓ MPO, ↓ ROS
	Safranal	Gastric ulcer	In vivo	Wistar rats	↑ SOD, ↑ TAC, ↓ MDA, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ caspase-3	[323]
Sesame (Sesamum indicum)	Sesamol	Asthma	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↑ GSH, ↓ MDA, ↓ ICAM-1 ↓ IL-4, ↓ IL-5, ↓ IL-13, ↓ IL-16, ↓ CCL11, ↓ CCL24, ↓ TNF-α	[324]
	Sesamol	Asthma	In vitro	BEAS-2B cells	↓ CCL11, ↓ CCL24, ↓ CCL5, ↓ MCP-1, ↓ IL-6,	[324]
					↓ IL-8
	Sesamin	ALI	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ MPO, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-6, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ TLR4, ↓ NF-κB activation	[325]
	Sesamin	Kidney injury	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↑ GSH, ↓ MDA, ↑ SOD, ↑ Nrf2, ↑ catalase, ↓ IL-6,	[326]
					↓ NF-κB, ↓ TLR4, ↓ cox-2, ↓ TNF-α
	Sesamin	Neuroinflammation	In vivo	CD-1 mice	↓ iNOS, ↓ cox-2, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β	[327]
	–^A	Asthma	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6, ↓ NO, ↓ iNOS, ↓ IgE	[328]
Star anise (Illicium verum)	–^C	Atherosclerosis	In vitro	HASMC	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ NF-κB, ↓ cox, ↓ E-selectin, ↓ ICAM-1, ↓ VCAM-1	[329]
	–^C	Atherosclerosis	In vivo	C57BL/6 mice	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ NF-κB, ↓ cox, ↓ E-selectin,	[329]
					↓ ICAM-1, ↓ VCAM-1, ↓ iNOS
	–^C	–	In vitro	HaCaT	↓ IFN-γ Rα, ↓ ICAM-1, ↑ SOCS1, ↓ p-JAK2,	[330]
					↓ p-STAT1
	Anethole	ALI	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ MMP-9, ↓TNF-α, ↓ NO, ↑ IκBα, ↓ NF-κB p65	[331]
	–^C, AET	Asthma	In vitro	Splenocyte	↓ IL-4, ↑ IFNγ	[332]
	–^C, AET	Asthma	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ IgE, ↓ IL-4, ↓ IL-5, ↓ IL-13, ↑ mRNA expression of Foxp3,↓ mRNA expression of IL-5, and IL-13	[332]
Tamarind (Tamarindus Indica)	–^C	Pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ ROS, ↓ LPO, ↓ PCC, ↓ NF-κB, ↓ p38α MAPK, ↓ NOX4, ↓ cox-2, ↑ HO-1, ↑ SOD2, ↑ catalase, ↑ GST, ↑ GSH, ↑ GPx	[333]
	–^C	Arthritis	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6, ↓ IL-23, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ cox-2, ↓ MMP	[334]
	Xyloglucan	Ulcerative colitis	In vivo	C57Bl6 mice	↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6, ↓ TLR4, ↓ NF-κB	[335]
Turmeric (Curcuma longa)	Curcumin	PIVP	In vitro	A549, BMMF	↓ IL6, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ MCP-1, ↓ NF-κB, ↑ IκBα	[336]
	Curcumin	PIVP	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↑ HO-1	[336]
	Curcumin	Cystic fibrosis	In vitro	16HBE14o	↑ CFTR, ↓ cox-2, ↓ PGE₂, ↓ IL-8	[337]
	Curcumin	Cystic fibrosis	In vivo	SD rats	↑ CFTR, ↓ cox-2, ↓ PGE₂, ↓ IL-8	[337]
	Curcumin	Diabetes	In vivo	SD rats	↓ NF-κB, ↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-6 ↓ NO, ↓ PGE₂,	[338]
					↓ cox-2
	Curcumin	ALI	In vivo	SD rats	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-8, ↓ MIF	[339]
	Curcumin	Asthma	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ NICD1, ↓ Notch 1/2 receptors	[340]
	Curcumin	Cerebral I/R injury	In vivo	SD rats	↓ IL-1β, ↓ IL-8, ↑ p-JAK2, ↑ p-STAT3	[341]
	ATM	Psoriasis	In vivo	BALB/c mice	↓ NF-κB, ↓ cox-2, ↓ p-p38 MAPK, ↓ TNF-α,	[342]
					↓ IL-6, ↓ mRNA synthesis of IL-17, -22, and -23
	MTrPP	Ulcer	In vivo	Wistar rats	↓ TNF-α, ↓ IL-8, ↓ NF-κB, ↓ p-p38, ↓ MMP-9,	[343]
					↓ cox-1 and -2

^A : Oil, ^B: Resin, ^C : Extract, ^D : Mucilage, ^E : Seed.

Abbreviations: AA: Arachidonic acid, Ach: Acetylcholine, AChE: Acetylcholinesterase, AD: Alzheimer's disease, ADAMTS: a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs, AET: Trans-Anethole, AFC: Antibody forming cell, Akt: Protein kinase B, ALI: Acute lung injury, ALP: Alkaline phosphatase, ALT: Alanine aminotrans-ferase, AMCase: Acidic mammalian chitinase, AMPK: Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, AP: Acute pancreatitis, AP-1: Activator protein-1, APH: Atypical prostatic hyperplasia, AR: Allergic rhinitis, AST: Aspartate aminotransferase, ATM: Aromatic-turmerone, ATPase: Adenosine triphosphatase, Bax: B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)-associated X protein, BCA: 2′-benzoxy-cinnamaldehyde, Bcl-2: B-cell lymphoma 2, CCL: C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand, CCR3: C-C chemokine receptor type 3, CD: Contact dermatitis, CHLS: total cholesterol, CFTR: Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cox-2: cyclooxygenase-2, CSE: Cystathionine-γ-lyase, CTXI: Collagen cross-linking carboxyterminal telopeptide, type I, DADS: Diallyl disulfide, DATS: Diallyl trisulfide, DNMT3A: DNA methyltransferase 3A, DRAM: Damage-regulated autophagy modulator, EFGR: Epidermal growth factor receptor, eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide, EPCR: Endothelial protein C receptor, ERK: Extracellular signal-regulated kinase, ET-1: endothelin-1, Foxp3: Forkhead Box Protein 3, GFAP: Glial fibrillary acidic protein, GGT: Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, GM-CSF: Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor, GPx: glutathione peroxidase, GR: Glutathione reductase, GRg1: Ginsenoside Rg1, GRg3: Ginsenoside Rg3, GSH: Glutathione, GSK3β: glycogen synthase kinase 3β, GST: Glutathione S-transferase, G-6P-D: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, HAND: Human immunodeficiency virus, HAND: (HIV)- associated neurocognitive disorders, HCA: 2′-hydroxycinnamaldehyde, HDAC1: Histone Deacetylase 1, HDL: High-density lipoprotein, HO-1: Heme oxygenase-1, HMGB1: High mobility group box-1 protein, HNSCC: Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck, H₂O₂: Hydrogen peroxide, H₂S: Hydrogen sulfide, IBD: Inflammatory bowel disease, ICAM-1- intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1, IFN: Interferon, IFN-γRα: IFN-γ receptor α, IKK: Inhibitor of M kinase, IL: Interleukin, iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase, IPF: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, IP-10: Interferon-inducible protein 10, IRF-3: Interferon regulatory factor 3, I/R: ischemia-reperfusion, JAK: Janus kinase 2: JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase, LC3: Light chain 3, LDH: Lactate dehydrogenase, LDL: Low density lipoprotein, LIF: leukemia inhibitory factor, LN: Lupus nephritis, LOX: Lipoxygenase, LPO: Lipid peroxidation, LXRα: Liver X receptor α, MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase, MDA: Malondialdehyde, MCP: Monocyte chemoattractant protein, M-CSF: Macrophage colony-stimulating factor, MIF: Migration inhibitory factor, MIG: Monokine induced by gamma, MIP: Macrophage inflammatory protein, MMP: matrix metalloproteinases, MPO: Myeloperoxidase, mTOR: mammalian target of rapamycin, MTrPP: Modified pectin polysaccharide from turmeric, MyD88: Myeloid differential factor 88, NAFLD: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, NF-κB p65: Nuclear factor-κB p65, NICD: Notch intracellular domain, NK1R: Neurokinin-1-receptor, NLRP3: Nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3, NO: Nitric oxide, NOX4: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase 4, NR: Notoginsenoside R1, Nrf2: Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, OA: Osteoarthritis, OSCC: Oral squamous cell carcinoma, p: phosphorylated, PA: Piperinic acid, PAI-1: Plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, PCC: Protein carbonyl content, PCNA: Proliferating cell nuclear antigen, PF: Pulmonary fibrosis, PGE2: prostaglandin E2, PIVP: Primary influenza viral pneumonia, PI3K: Phosphoinositide 3-kinases, PKC-β: Protein kinase C-β, PL: Piperlongumine, PLA2: Phospholipase 2, PNS: Panax notoginseng saponins, PPTA: Preprotachykinin A, p-YSTAT3: phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, QE: Quercetin-3-O-glucoside, QG: Quercetin-3-O-glucoside, RA: Rheumatoid arthritis, RA-FLS: Rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblast, ROS: Reactive oxygen species, RORγt: Retinoic acid-related orphan receptor-γt, SA: serum sialic acid, SAC: S-allyl-L-cysteine, SAMC: S-allyl-mercapto cysteine, SD: Sprague- Dawley, SGI: Salivary gland inflammation, Smad-3: small mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3, SMC: S-allyl-mercapto cysteine, SOCS1: Suppressor of cytokine signaling 1, SOD: Superoxide dismutase, STAT: Signal transducer and activator of transcription, STZ: Streptozotocin, TACE: Tumor necrosis factor alpha converting enzyme, TBARS: Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, TAC: Total anti-oxidant capacity, TAK1: TGF-β-activated kinase 1, TCA: Trans-cinnamaldehyde, TG: Triglyceride, TGF-β: Transforming growth factor-β, TIGAR: Tp53 induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator, TIMP-1: Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase, TLRs: Toll-like receptors, TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-α, TP: Total protein, TQ: Thymoquinone, TRAP: Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, TRX1: Thioredoxin 1, TRXR1: Thioredoxin reductase 1, TSLP: Thymic stromal lymphopoietin, VCAM-1: Vascular cell adhesion protein 1, VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor, VLDL: Very low density lipoprotein, α-SMA: α-smooth muscle actin, ↓: Downregulation/Inhibition, ↑: Upregulation/Activation.