FIGURE 1.

Probiotics and miRNA, as well as their implications for host–microbe interactions. The traditional pathways involving in host–microbe interactions are mainly dominated by bile acids, antibacterial peptide, and IgA. In addition, the traditional pathways also include dietary, environmental, and genetic factors. Moreover, the host regulates bacterial gene expression via fecal miRNA and plant-derived miRNA to shape gut microbiota. Gut microbiota regulate cell gene expression via host miRNA to alleviate various gastrointestinal diseases. Probiotics have impacts on these host–microbe interactions. The dotted line represents the lack of conclusive evidence in the relationship at present.