Table 2.
Data obtained from the chosen articles.
| Database | Title | Country | Occupational environment study | Environment samples/samples description | Sampling methods | Analyses methods | Main findings | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Scopus | 1. Surfaces and equipment contamination by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in the emergency department at a university hospital | France | Yes | 192 Samples from hospital environment before and after decontamination. | Swabs (WHO protocol) | Viral RNA inactivation with COBAS 6800 lysis buffer and RNA Extraction and RT-qPCR with Cobas® SARS-CoV-2 Test (Roche) that targets the non-structural ORF1a/b region specific of SARS-CoV-2 and the structural protein envelope E gene. | • 10/192 total samples were positive (5.2%). • 5/45 positive samples in patient care areas (10.9%) and 4/56 positive samples on surfaces not directly in contact with patients. • After decontamination, SRARS-CoV-2 RNA remained on scuffs, stretcher, and trolleys. |
(Peyrony et al., 2020) |
| 2. Sentinel Coronavirus Environmental Monitoring Can Contribute to Detecting Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Virus Spreaders and Can Verify Effectiveness of Workplace COVID-19 Controls | Europe and USA | Yes | 48 samples of high frequency touch surfaces on a New Orleans study location for preliminary tasting and 60 samples of 15 surface sites sampling on the same location | Swabs | Viral RNA extraction and Multiplex RT-qPCR essay for Coronavirus Envelope E gene and SARS-CoV-2 RdRP gene (VIRSeek Screen, Eurofins GeneScan) | • 4% prevalence of Coronavirus on the 48% sampled surfaces on the preliminary testing. • Detection rate of 13% on the 60 samples from the 15 sampling surfaces. • Non-symptomatic employees may be the cause of surface contamination. |
(Marshall et al., 2020) | |
| 3. SARS-Cov-2RNA found on particulate matter of Bergamo in Northern Italy: first evidence | Italy | No | Air samples from a quartz fiber filters for matriculate matter in industrial are of Bergamo (Italy) | Low gravimetric air samples (38.1 L/min for 24 h) compliant with the reference method EN12341:2014 for PM10 monitoring | Viral RNA extraction with quick RNA fecal soil microbe kit (Zymoresearch Ltd., 2020) qScript XLT 1-Step RT-qPCRToughMix used to detect up to three molecular marker genes (E, N, and RdRP) | • 20 out 34 RNA extractions for E, N and RdRP gene had positive result for at least one of the markers • There is evidence of SARS-CoV-2 on particulate matter. |
(Setti et al., 2020) | |
| 4. SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection of hospital isolation wards hygiene monitoring during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 outbreak in a Chinese hospital | China | Yes | Surface samples form an Isolation Intensive Care Unit, Isolation wards including cleaning area, semi-contaminated area, and contaminated area. Samples from isolation wards sewage and staff personal protective equipment |
ClassiqSwabs, and collected in universal transport medium. | Viral RNA extraction and RT-qPCR SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid detection Kit (Shanghai Berger Medical Technology Co., China) | • 3 sewage samples from the intel of pre-processing disinfection poor were positive. Negative samples in the outlet of the last disinfection pool. • No viable virus was detected by culture. • All the staff samples were negative. |
(J. Wang et al., 2020) | |
| 5. SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection in the air and on surfaces in the COVID-19 ward of a hospital in Milan, Italy | Italy | Yes | Air and surface samples from three zones classified as contaminated, semi-contaminated, and clean areas | Swabs and air samples collected using an MD8 Airport Portable Air Sampler with Gelatin Membrane Filters | Viral RNA extraction and RT-qPCR using the VET finder “Detection of CoV-19 and SARS and Recovery control in environmental sample” detection kit, which can detect both SARS-CoV-2 and SARS virus group | • Overall, 24.3% of swab samples were positive, but none of these were collected in the clean area. • The most contaminated surfaces were hand sanitizer dispensers (100.0%). |
(Razzini et al., 2020) | |
| 6. A field indoor air measurement of SARS-CoV-2 in the patient rooms of the largest hospital in Iran | Iran | No | 10 air samples in hospital wards with confirmed COVID-19 patients | Impinger - containing 20 mL DMEM with 100 μg/mL streptomycin, 100 U/mL penicillin and 1% antifoam reagent for 1 h | Viral RNA extraction and collection in elution buffer, using a Vazyme Viral RNA/DNA Mini Kit (Vazyme, China) PCR amplification were performed using The SuperScript™ III One-Step RT-qPCR System with Platinum™ Taq DNA Polymerase. SARS-CoV-2 specific primer and probe sets suggested by WHO (ModularDx Kit, Wuhan Cov RdRP and E gens) | • Air samples were all negative. • Evidence of air transmission but need of more studies on sneezing and coughing emissions. |
(Faridi et al., 2020) | |
| 7. SARS-CoV-2 presented in the air of an intensive care unit (ICU) | China | No | Surface and air samples from Jiangjunshan Hospital | Air sampling was performed with an WA 400 Portable viral aerosol sampler (400 L/min for 15 min). Surface sampling were collected with swabs | Viral RNA extraction with LabServ® Prefilled Viral Total NA Kit-Flex RT-qPCR assays were performed on SARS-CoV-2 open reading frame 1ab (ORF1ab) and nucleocapsid protein (NP) gene fragments using China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA)-approved commercial Nucleic Acid Diagnostic Kits (PCR-Fluorescence Probing) | • All surface samples were negative for SARS-CoV-2. • Air samples tested positive. |
(Jin et al., 2020) | |
| 8. SARS-CoV-2 has been circulating in northern Italy since December 2019: Evidence from environmental monitoring | Italy | No | Sewage samples from a wastewater treatment plant | Water sampling | Viral RNA extraction was performed with Alphacoronavirus HCoV 229E (ATCC VR-740). Molecular analysis was undertaken with both nested RT-qPCR in the ORF1ab region and two published real-time RT-qPCR assays targeting the E gene of the SARS Betacoronavirus and the RdRp gene of SARS-CoV-2, respectively, as described previously (Corman et al., 2020) | • SARS-CoV-2 was detected in sewage wastewater samples. | (La Rosa et al., 2021) | |
| 9. Presence and infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 virus in wastewaters and rivers | Italy | No | 18 grab samples have been collected in three WWTPs | Water sampling | Viral RNA extraction using the QIAMP Viral RNA mini kit (Qiagen). RT-qPCR performed with panel (CE-IVD, TGA and NMPA (CFDA) approved for diagnostic identification of SARS-CoV-2) containing primers and probes that target the nucleocapsid (N) gene, the ORF1ab gene and the E gene |
• SARS-CoV-2 was detected in raw. • SARS-CoV-2 was not detected in treated. |
(Rimoldi et al., 2020) | |
| 10. Multi-route transmission potential of SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare facilities | China | No | Samples from surface and air samples from isolation room in First Affiliated Hospitals, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University | Air sampling performed with NIOSH sampler (105-L form 30). Surface samples were collected with sterile swabs and then put onto viral transport medium |
Viral RNA extraction using MagNA Pure LC 2.0 (Roche) RT-qPCR was performed using a China Food and Drug Administration-approved commercial kit specific for SARS-CoV-2 detection |
• SARS-CoV-2 was detected in 1 of the 12 air samples on patient's bedside and in 4 of the 132 surface samples. • SARS-CoV-2 was also detected in 7 of 23 faeces-related air/surface/water samples. • Nosocomial infections can occur by multiple sources. |
(Feng et al., 2021) | |
| 11. Hospital indoor air quality monitoring for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus | Iran | No | Air samples from Shahid Mustafa Khomeini Hospital wards | Liquid impinger biosampler (flow rate of 12 L·min−1) | Viral RNA was extracted from the air sample impingement medium, using a GeneAll Ribospin™ and then PCR was performed with Mic Real-Time PCR System The specific primers and probes for RT-qPCR target ORF1ab and N genes (Nucleoprotein gene) | • SARS-CoV-2 was detected in 2 of the 14 air samples from different awards with positive patients. • Evidence of air transmission but need of more studies on sneezing and coughing emissions. |
(Kenarkoohi et al., 2020) | |
| 12. First environmental surveillance for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater and river water in Japan | Japan | No | Water samples from water treatment plants and river water samples. | Water collected onto 1 L plastic bottles | Viral RNA was extracted with a QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit (Qiagen). Used a total of six published assays, including four qPCR assays (N_Sarbeco, NIID_2019-nCOV_N, CDC-N1, and CDC-N2 assays) (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020; Corman et al., 2020; Shirato et al., 2020) and two nested PCR assays (ORF1a and S protein assays) (Shirato et al., 2020), to detect SARS-CoV-2 RNA |
• SARS-CoV-2 was detected in 1 of the 5 secondary-treated wastewater samples. • SARS-CoV-2 not detected in river samples. |
(Haramoto et al., 2020) | |
| 13. First detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater in North America: A study in Louisiana, USA | USA | No | Water samples collected in wastewater treatment plants | Water samples collected in sterile 1 L Nalgene bottles | Viral RNA was extracted from the concentrated wastewater sample with a ZR Viral RNA Kit (Zymo Research) RT was performed using a High Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit (Applied Biosystems), qPCR assays were performed with CDC N1 and N2 primers and probes. | • None of the secondary treated and final effluent samples tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA. | (Sherchan et al., 2020) | |
| 14. First confirmed detection of SARS-CoV-2 in untreated wastewater in Australia: a proof of concept for the wastewater surveillance of COVID-19 in the community | Australia | No | Samples from one suburban pumping station and two wastewater treatment plant in Southeast Queensland | Water samples collected with a refrigerator autosampler or a submersible in-situ high frequency autosampler and grab sampling technique | Viral RNA extraction with a combination of two kits (RNeasy PowerWater Kit and RNeasy PowerMicrobiome Kit; Qiagen) RT-qPCR used N_Sarbeco assay and NIID_2019-nCOV_N assay | • 2 samples from wastewater treatment plant were positive. • NIID_2019-nCOV_N assay failed to detect SARS-CoV-2 in any sample. |
(Ahmed et al., 2020) | |
| 15. Evaluation of the exposure risk of SARS-CoV-2 in different hospital environment | China | Yes | Air, surface samples from Xiangya hospital | Air samples collected with NIOSH (for 30 min at a flow rate of 3.5 L/minute). Surface samples collected with swabs and then inserted into a sterile EP tube containing RNAstore reagent |
Viral RNA extraction carried out by resuspending using fully automatic nucleic acid extraction and purification instrument (NPA-32 P, BIOER, Hangzhou) RT-qPCR assays targeted the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein (NP) gene fragment. |
• SARS-CoV-2 detected in 7.7% of COVID-19 investigation wards and 82.6% ICUs with confirmed COVID-19 patients. • There is risk of occupational exposure. |
(Ge et al., 2020) | |
| 16. Environmental contamination of SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare premises | China | Yes | Surface samples from function zones, hospital equipment/objects and medical supplies in Zhongnan Medical Center in Wuhan | Sampling performed using Dacron swabs | RT-qPCR according to procedures recommended by the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention using a SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid detection kits to extract viral RNAs. Two different targets on the SARS-CoV-2 genome were used: the ORF1ab and N genes. | • 31.9% ICUs were contaminated. • The most contaminated objects were self-service printers (20%). • The most contaminated PPE were hand sanitizers dispensers and gloves (20.3% and 15.4%, respectively). |
(Ye et al., 2020) | |
| 17. Environmental contamination of SARS-CoV-2 during the COVID-19 outbreak in South Korea | South Korea | No | Swabs from inside and outside patient rooms in 2 hospitals A and B in Changwon | Samples collected with Dacron swabs premoistened with viral transport medium | Viral RNA extraction was performed with ExiPrep 48 Viral DNA/RNA Kit and RT-qPCR with Allplex 2019-nCoV Assay and a CFX96 Touch Real-Time PCR Detection System. This is a multiplex real-time PCR assay that detects the SARS-CoV-2 E gene, RdRp gene, and N gene. | • In hospital A: SARS-CoV-2 was detected in 17.5% samples from inside the rooms. Two samples obtained at more than 2 m from the patients showed positive results. • In hospital B: 13.6% samples from inside the rooms were positive. |
(Ryu et al., 2020) | |
| 18. Environmental contamination in the isolation rooms of COVID-19 patients with severe pneumonia requiring mechanical ventilation or high-flow oxygen therapy | South Korea | No | Air and surface samples collected from 3 negative pressure patient rooms with COVID-19 in | Samples collection with SKC BioSampler and Swab sampler | Samples were analyzed with rRT–PCR methods using PowerCheck 2019-nCoV (Kogene Biotech) which targets the SARS-CoV-2 RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and E genes | • From 1 and 2 patient rooms, only surfaces of the endotracheal tubes tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. • In 3 patient room 13 of the 28 samples were positive. • Air samples were all negative. |
(Ahn et al., 2020) | |
| 19. Environmental contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in a designated hospital for coronavirus disease 2019 | China | No | Samples collected in Wuhan 7 hospital in wards, ICU, fever clinic, clinical lab, office area and restrooms | Samples collection was performed with flocked swabs, premoistened with viral transport medium | RT-qPCR assay of SARS-CoV-2 RNA was performed using a SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid detection kit according to the manufacturer's protocol (Shanghai ZJ Bio-Tech). Three different targets on the SARS-CoV-2 genome were amplified: the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), nucleocapsid (N) and the envelope (E) gene. | • 24.83% of samples were positive in medical areas. • Positive rates were 25.00% and 37.50% for the general isolation ward and intensive care unit, respectively. |
(Wu et al., 2020) | |
| 20. COVID-19 surveillance in Southeastern Virginia using wastewater-based epidemiology | USA | No | Samples collected in wastewater influent were aseptically collected at Hampton Roads Sanitation District in their nine major plants | 1 L raw wastewater was sampled | RT-ddPCR (Reverse transcription droplet digital PCR) was used to enumerate SARS-CoV-2 RNA copies using three CDC diagnostic panel assays | • Detection was according to the flowrate on population contamination. | (Gonzalez et al., 2020) | |
| Pubmed | 21. Status of occupational protection in the COVID-19 Fangcang Shelter Hospital in Wuhan, China | China | Yes | Air and surface samples were collected in COVID-19 Fangcang Shelter Hospital in Wuhan, China | Air sampling was performed on four days using Air Virus collection equipment (10 min at 6 m3/h). Surface samples were collected with swabs and placed in a virus preservation solution for transportation | PCR testing using BGI Europe A/S kit and One-step Quantitative RT–PCR system with ORF1ab target gene amplification. | • SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in 48 air and environmental samples after regular disinfection and cleaning. | (Zhang et al., 2020) |
| 22. Air, surface environmental, and personal protective equipment contamination by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from a symptomatic patient | Singapore | No | Air and surface samples form isolation rooms | Air samples: SKC Universal Pumps (4 h at 5 L/min) and Sartorius MD8 microbiological sampler (15 min at 6 m3/h) Surface samples: sterile premoistened swabs |
RT-qPCR using SuperScriptTM III Platinum® One-step Quantitative RT-PCR system, targeted RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and E genes | • Environmental contamination detected, particularly on Toilet bowl and sink samples were positive. | (Ong et al., 2020) | |
| 23. Bioaerosol sampling of a ventilated patient with COVID-19 | USA | No | Air sample | Ten NIOSH BC 251 2-stage cyclone separated particles into 3 size fractions | Viral RNA extraction on the m2000 (Abbott Molecular), qPCR with probes for gene regions of the SARS-CoV-2 virus nucleocapsid (N1, N2, N3) and human RNase P gene. | • None of the 28 samples tested were positive for SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid. | (Lane et al., 2020) | |
| 24. Aerodynamic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 in two Wuhan hospitals | China | No | Air samples collected in hospital | Air sampling: fixed flow rate of 5.0 L min−1 using a portable pump (APEX2, Casella) | Viral RNA extraction with Trizol reagent (Invitrogen). First-strand cDNA synthesis with the PrimeScript RT kit (TakaRa). Droplet-digital-PCR-based detection method (ddPCR). |
• SARS-CoV-2 aerosols were mainly found to include two size ranges, one in the submicrometre region (dp between 0.25 and 1.0 μm) and the other in supermicrometre region (dp > 2.5 μm). | (Liu et al., 2020) | |
| 25. Viable SARS-CoV-2 in the air of a hospital room 1 with COVID-19 patients | USA | No | Air samples collected from hospital room | 3-hour air sampling performed using the prototype VIVAS air sampler and using a BioSpot-VIVAS BSS300P | Viral RNA extraction with QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit (Qiagen) RT-qPCR with primers and probe for section of the SARS-CoV-2 N-gene | • 4 air samples tested positive for SARS-CoV-2.8. | (Lednicky et al., 2020) | |
| 26. Toilets dominate environmental detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in a hospital | China | No | Surface and air samples collected at the hospital | Air samples: Andersen one-stage viable impactor at 10 L/min for 30 min; 10 mL AirPort MD8 for 50 L/min for 20 min; ASE-100, 500 L/min for 2 min and WA-15 at 14 L/min for 30 min. Surface: Youkang virus sampling kit and swabs |
Viral RNA extraction (NP968, Tianlong Science & Technology, Xi'an, China) and RT (Applied Biosystems QuantStudio Dx)-qPCR (Shanghai Chromysky Medical Research Co) | • 7/107 surface samples were positive. • 1/46 air samples were positive. |
(Ding et al., 2020) | |
| 27. Environmental sampling for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 during a COVID-19 outbreak on the diamond princess cruise ship | Japan | No | Surface and air samples from the cabins where passengers have been | Air samples: Airport MD8, Sartorius Surface: swabs | RT-qPCR MyGo Pro system (IT-IS Life Science) | • SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in 58 of 601 environmental samples. • SARS-CoV-2 RNA was not detected in any air samples. • SARS-CoV-2 RNA was most often detected on the floor around the toilet in bathrooms and bed pillows. |
(Yamagishi et al., 2020) | |
| 28. Air and environmental sampling for SARS-CoV-2 around hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) | China | No | Surface and air samples inside airborne infection isolation rooms | Air samples: Sartorius MD8 air scan at a rate of 50 L/min (1000 L for 20 min) Surfaces: swabs |
RdRp/Hel RT-qPCR with 1 μL of SARS-CoV-2 control RNA was spiked into each additional reaction. | • All air samples were negative for SARS-CoV-2. | (Cheng et al., 2020) | |
| 29. Aerosol and surface distribution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in Hospital Wards, Wuhan, China, 2020 | China | No | Surface and air samples in 2 hospital wards | Air samples: collected by using a SASS 2300 Wetted Wall Cyclone Sampler at 300 L/min for of 30 min. Surfaces: sterile premoistened swabs to sample |
Viral RNA extraction (LabServ® Prefilled Viral Total NA Kit-Flex and KingFisher Flex System - Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.) RT-qPCR for SARS-CoV-2 open reading frame 1ab (ORF1ab) and nucleocapsid protein (NP) gene fragments with 2019-nCoV Nucleic Acid Diagnostic Kits (PCR-Fluorescence Probing) (Sansure Biotech Inc.) and CFX96 Touch Real-Time PCR Detection System (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc.). | • SARS-CoV-2 was widely distributed in air and surfaces. • SARS-CoV-2 aerosol distribution characteristics in the ICU indicate that the transmission distance of the virus might be 4 m. |
(Guo et al., 2020) | |
| Web of Science | 30. The evidence of indirect transmission of SARS-CoV-2 reported in Guangzhou, China | China | No | Aerosols and surface samples collected in multiple surfaces of 2 family houses | SARS-CoV-2 by RT-qPCR assay was performed in accordance with WHO guidelines | • SARS-CoV-2 detected in door handle. • Evidence of surface contamination and SARS-CoV-2 cross-contamination. |
(Xie et al., 2020) | |
| 31. Surface distribution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in Leishenshan Hospital in China | China | Yes | Surface samples from ICU, isolation ward in Wuhan Leishenshan Hospital | Swabs with flocked polyester tips moistened with Ringer 1/4 solution | Viral RNA extraction performed with bio robot and reaction kit from the Da'an gene qPCR was performed with PCR machine from American Roche company 480-ii; | • From 66 samples 3.03% was positive for SARS-CoV-2. • Environmental cleaning and disinfection procedures are reliable and useful on SARS-CoV-2 spreading prevention. |
(Y. Wang et al., 2020) | |
| 32. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 RNA contamination of inanimate surfaces and virus viability in a health care emergency unit | Italy | No | Surface samples from emergency unit and sub-intensive care ward | Sampling performed with flexible nasopharyngeal nylon flocked swabs dipped in 3 mL universal transport medium | Viral RNA extraction performed with 200 μL of UTM™ using the QIAsymphony® instrument with QIAsymphony® DSP Virus/Pathogen Midi Kit. RT-qPCR with RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and E genes according to WHO guidelines | • From 22 samples, only 2 were positive for SARS-CoV-2 collected in external surface of continuous positive airway pressure helmets. | (Colaneri et al., 2020) | |
| 33. SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater anticipated COVID-19 occurrence in a low prevalence area | Spain | No | Water samples collected in WWTPs located in Region of Murcia | Sampling performed by collecting 500–1000 mL of water in sterile HDPE plastic containers | Viral RNA extracted from with Nucleo-Spin RNA virus kit (Macherey-Nagel GmbH & Co). TaqMan RT-qPCR on LightCycler 480 instrument detected three viral genes. | • 2 out of 18 secondary samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2. • This strategy is an indicator of infection within a specific population. |
(Randazzo et al., 2020) | |
| 34. SARS-CoV-2 RNA contamination on surfaces of a COVID-19 ward in a hospital of Northern Italy: what risk of transmission? | Italy | No | Surface samples from ward in University Hospital of Ferrara | Sampling performed with sterile rayon swabs pre-moistened in sterile phosphate-buffered solution | Viral RNA extraction with Patho Gene-spin Extraction kit (Generon) RT-qPCR targeted the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) gene (Generon), and the orf1ab, spike (S), and nucleocapsid (N) genes (ThermoFisher) | • SARS-CoV-2 was only detected in 3 samples of two floors and one-bathroom sink. • Reported to persist for a longer duration on surfaces under controlled laboratory conditions. |
(D'accolti et al., 2020) | |
| 35. SARS-CoV-2 environmental contamination associated with persistently infected COVID-19 patients | China | No | Air and surface samples collected in ICU and Isolation ward in The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University | Surface samples collected with sterile flocked plastic swabs (WHO guidelines) Air sampling performed with two-stage cyclonic bioaerosol sampler developed by the NIOSH (flow rate of 3.5 L/min) |
Viral RNA extraction performed with QIAGEN vRNA mini kit and SARS-CoV-2 was detected with New Coronavirus 2019-nCoV nucleic acid detection kit (Sansure Biotech Inc.). | • From 218 air samples, only on was positive for SARS-CoV-2. From 182 surface samples, 9 were positive for SARS-CoV-2. | (Lei et al., 2020) | |
| 36. Preliminary results of SARS-CoV-2 detection in sewerage system in Niteroi municipality, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil | Brazil | No | Sewage samples collected in 12 different points in Niteroi city including WWTP | Waters samples were collected onto sterile polypropylene bottles | RNA extraction using QIAamp® Viral RNA Mini kit and QIAcube® automated system. Viral RNA detected using RT-qPCR according to CDC guidelines, detecting SARS-CoV2 – N1, N2 and N3 genes. | • SARS-CoV-2 detected in 41.6% (5/12) of raw sewage sample. | (Prado et al., 2020) | |
| 37. Identifying the Risk of SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Environmental Monitoring in Airborne Infectious Isolation Rooms (AIIRs) | China | Yes | Air and surface samples collected from isolation rooms in Shanghai Public Health Clinic Center | Surface samples collected with sterile swabs premoistened with viral transport medium. Air samples collected with an automatic sampling system (for 1.5 h at 1 m3/h) | Viral RNA extracted using a Magnetic beads nucleic acid isolation kit (Jiangsu Bioperfectus technologies Co.) SARS-CoV-2 was detected with RT-qPCR using the Takara One Step PrimeScript RT-qPCR kit targeting SARS-CoV-2 N gene. | • Risk of airborne transmission in isolation rooms was low (1.26%). • Viral RNA on the surface of foot-operated openers and bathroom sinks in isolation rooms. |
(Song et al., 2020) | |
| 38. Environmental contamination by SARS-CoV-2 of an imported case during incubation period | China | No | Surface samples collected prior to and after disinfection of a quarantine room | Swabs were used for surface sampling and put onto viral transport medium | Samples sent to Qingdao Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention for centralized RT-PCR testing for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 | • 11 of the 23 of the first batch of environmental surface samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2. • 2 of 23 of the second batch of environmental samples (after first disinfection) were tested positive |
(Hu et al., 2020) | |
| 39. Detection of environmental SARS-CoV-2 RNA in a high prevalence setting in Spain | Spain | No | Surfaces and clothing samples of 10 households and 6 public service sites and in addition the wastewater from the village sewage system | Samples were collected using Dry-Sponges, pre-hydrated with 15 ml of an isotonic surfactant and virus-inactivating liquid | Viral RNA extraction using NucleoSpin RNA Virus kit (Macherey-Nagel). Detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA by RT-qPCR targeting the envelope protein (E)-encoding gene and two targets (IP2 and IP4) of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene (RdRp), according to protocols included in the WHO guidelines (WHO guidelines) | • SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected in 12% samples, including three households and three public sites. | (Fernández-de-Mera et al., 2020) | |
| 40. Detection of Coronavirus Disease 2019 Viral Material on Environmental Surfaces of an Ophthalmology Examination Room | Turkey | No | Surface samples collected in Ophthalmology Examination Room of different surfaces around the examination chair | Dacron swabs were used to gather the surface samples. | RT-qPCR | • Two samples that were taken after examinations were found to be positive for SARS-CoV-2, 1 from the slitlamp breath shield and 1 from the phoropter. | (Aytogan et al., 2020) | |
| 41. Detection of air and surface contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in hospital rooms of infected patients | Singapore | No | Air and surface samples from patient rooms in isolation rooms. | Air: Six NIOSH 251 BCE bioaerosol samplers (flow-rate of 3.5 L/min for 4 h). Surface: Puritan EnviroMax Plus pre-moistened macrofoam sterile swabs |
Viral RNA extraction: QIAamp viral RNA mini kit. Detection using SuperScript III Platinum One-Step RT-qPCR Kit targeting the envelope (E) genes16 and a modified orf1ab assay | • 56.7% of rooms have at least one environmental surface contaminated. • SARS-CoV-2 detected in 2 isolation rooms by air sampling. |
(Chia et al., 2020) | |
| 42. Asymptomatic COVID-19 Patients Can Contaminate Their Surroundings: an Environment Sampling Study | China | No | Air and surface samples from symptomatic and asymptomatic patients in care unit rooms. | Surface sampling: using sterile swabs. Air sampling: air sampler (FSC-1 V) (15 min at 100 L/min). Filter membrane was swabbed |
RT-qPCR (Sansure Biotech) targeting open reading frame 1a or 1b (ORF1ab) and the nucleocapsid protein (N) gene. | • 44 of 112 (39.3%) surface samples were positive for SARS-CoV-2. • SARS-CoV-2 not detected in air samples. • SARS-CoV-2 detected in asymptomatic patient room. |
(Wei et al., 2020) | |
| 43. Aerosol and surface contamination of SARS-CoV-2 observed in quarantine and isolation care | USA | No | Surface and air samples from COVID-19 patient rooms | Air sampling: Sartorius Airport MD8 air sampler operating at 50 Lpm for 15 min. Surface samples: sterile swabs |
Viral RNA Extractions: using a Qiagen DSP Virus Spin Kit. RT-qPCR: using Invitrogen Superscript III Platinum One-Step Quantitative RT-qPCR System. Primers and probe used target the E gene of SARS-CoV-2. | • We detected viral contamination among all samples. | (Santarpia et al., 2020) | |
| 44. Aerosol and environmental surface monitoring for SARS-CoV-2 RNA in a designated hospital for severe COVID-19 patients | China | No | Surface and air samples from multiple sites in Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology | Aerosol samples were collected by an impingement air sampler (2400 l of air were collected at a flowrate of 80 l/min per sample). Surfaces were sampled using sterile premoistened swabs |
RT-qPCR in accordance with the WHO protocol | • Only 2 swabs, sampled from the inside of a patient's mask, were positive for SARS-CoV-2. • All other swabs and aerosol samples were negative. |
(Li et al., 2020) | |
| Other sources | 45. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) contamination in air and environment in temporary COVID-19 ICU wards | China | Yes | Surface and air samples from 14 temporary COVID-19 ICU in the new Sino-French Ward, Tongji Hospital | 15 Air samples: dry filter air sampler operating at a speed of 200 49 L/min for 60 min. Surfaces: 128 swabs premoistened with viral transport medium |
Viral RNA extracted by using the QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit (Qiagen). RT-qPCR targeting the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and orf1a/b gene to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2 | • All air samples tested negative. • 2 of 128 swabs tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 on RT-qPCR testing. |
(Cai et al., 2020) |
| 46. Investigating SARS-CoV-2 surface and air contamination in an acute healthcare setting during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic in London | UK | No | Surface and air samples collected from 7 clinical areas of the hospital | Air samples: Coriolis μ air sampler Surface: Swabs |
Viral RNA extracgted by using the QIAamp Viral RNA Mini Kit (Qiagen). SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA was detected by RT-qPCR using AgPath-ID One-Step RT-PCR Reagents (Life Technologies) with specific primers and probes targeting the envelope (E) | • Viral RNA was detected on 114/218 of surfaces and 14/31 air samples but no virus was cultured. | (Zhou et al., 2020) | |
| 47. Exhaled breath is a significant source of SARS-CoV-2 emission | China/USA | No | Air and surface samples from Hospital and Isolation room, patient personal items | Air samples (impinger methods): WA-15 (15 L/min) and WA-400 (400 L/min). Surface samples: swabs |
Viral RNA Extraction with a MagMAX™ Multi-Sample 96-Well RNA Isolation Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific). RT-qPCR targeting both ORF1ab and N genes using a detection kit (Jiangsu Bioperfectus Technologies) |
• SARS-CoV-2 on 5.4% and 3.8% of surface and air samples, respectively. • COVID-19 patients can exhale the virus considering toilets and floors reservoirs. |
(Ma et al., 2020) | |
| Clinical data on hospital environmental hygiene monitoring and medical staff protection during the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak | China | Yes | Air and surface samples from different hospital sites | Air sampling: microbial air sampler (MAS-100 ECO) (100 L/min) Surface sampling: sterile swabs |
RT-qPCR with primers and probes for two sequence regions (ORF1ab and N). | • SARS-CoV-2 detected in nurse station in the isolation area and in air samples of the same area. | (Jiang et al., 2020) |