Table 1.
Induction of autophagy reduces hepatic steatosis.
| Recent scientific evidence that activating autophagy improves liver steatosis | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Author year | Research model | Autophagy pathway | Autophagy modulation | Enhanced autophagy | Reduced steatosis | Reduced autophagy | Increased steatosis |
| Tong et al. [179] 2019 | HFD-fed C57BL/6 mice; ob/ob mice; primary mouse hepatocytes; HepG2 cells | AMPK-mTOR | PPARδ Chloroquine Atg5-KD |
LC3-II: +++ P62: --- |
TG: --- HE: --- |
P62: +++ | TG: +++ HE: +++ |
| Ren et al. [176] 2019 | HFD-fed C57BL/6 mice; ob/ob mice; Palmitate-stimulated HepG2 cells | AMPK-TFEB | Catalpol Chloroquine |
LC3-II: +++ P62: --- |
TG: --- TC: --- HE: --- Oil Red O: --- |
TG: +++ TC: +++ Oil Red O: +++ |
|
| Wang et al. [180] 2019 | HFD and MCDD-fed C57BL/6J mice; Palmitate-stimulated primary mouse hepatocytes and HepG2 cells | AMPK-SIRT1 | Tangshen formula SIRT1-KD |
LC3-II: +++ P62: --- |
TG: --- TC: --- HE: --- Oil Red O: --- |
LC3-II: --- P62: +++ |
LDs: +++ |
| Chu et al. [181] 2019 | Oleic acid-stimulated HepG2 and LO2 cells | AMPK-mTOR Akt-mTOR |
Cherry anthocyanins 3-Methyladenine; Atg5-KD |
LC3-II: +++ P62: --- |
TG: --- TC: --- Oil Red O: --- |
LC3-II: --- | TG: +++ TC: +++ Oil Red O: +++ |
| Ohashi et al. [182] 2019 | HFD-fed male BALB/c mice | Not investigated | Conophylline | LC3-II: +++ P62: --- |
TG: --- HE: --- Oil Red O: --- |
||
| Liu et al. [183] 2018 | HFD-fed male SD rats; Palmitate-stimulated L02 cells | COX-2 | Celecoxib Rapamycin Chloroquine |
LC3-II: +++ P62: --- |
TG: --- Oil Red O: --- |
LC3-II: --- P62: +++ |
TG: +++ Oil Red O: +++ |
| Hong et al. [184] 2018 | Male ob/ob and C57BL/6 mice; Palmitate-stimulated HepG2 cells and primary hepatocytes | SIRT1 | Erythropoietin SIRT1-KD |
LC3-II: +++ | TG: --- Oil Red O: --- |
LC3-II: --- | TG: +++ Oil Red O: +++ |
| Balachander et al. [185] 2018 | Oleic acid-stimulated HepG2 cells | Not investigated | Rosmarinic acid | LC3-II: +++ | TG: --- TC: --- Oil Red O: --- |
||
| Li et al. [186] 2017 | HFD-fed male C57BL/6 mice; free fatty acid-stimulated HepG2 cells | Atg16L1-mediated | 1,25(OH)2D3 3-Methyladenine Atg16L1-KD |
LC3-II: +++ P62: --- |
TG: --- TC: --- HE: --- Oil Red O: --- |
LC3-II: --- | TG: +++ TC: +++ Oil Red O: +++ |
| Tang et al. [173] 2016 | Chronic ethanol-fed male C57BL/6J mice; oleic acid and alcohol-stimulated HepG2 cells | Not investigated | Resveratrol 3-Methyladenine |
LC3-II: +++ P62: --- |
TG: --- HDL-C: +++ LDL-C: --- LDs: --- HE: --- Oil Red O: --- |
LC3-II: --- P62: +++ |
TG: +++ Oil Red O: +++ |
| Jung et al. [187] 2015 | HFD-fed male C57BL/6J mice; Palmitate or tunicamycin-stimulated HepG2 cells and human primary hepatocytes | AMPK-mediated | C1q/TNF-related protein 9 Compound C 3-Methyladenine |
LC3-II: +++ P62: --- |
TG: --- HE: --- Oil Red O: --- |
LC3-II: --- P62: +++ |
TG: +++ Oil Red O: +++ |
| Zhang et al. [188] 2015 | HFD-fed 129/SvJ mice; Palmitate-stimulated HepG2 cells | cAMP-PRKA-AMPK-SIRT1 | Resveratrol 3-Methyladenine |
LC3-II: +++ P62: --- |
TG: --- Oil Red O: --- |
LC3-II: --- P62: +++ |
TG: +++ |
+++: increase; ---: decrease; KO: knockout; KD: knockdown; HFD: high-fat diet; MCDD: methionine choline-deficient diet; TG: triglyceride; TC: total cholesterol; HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDs: lipid droplets; PPARδ: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ; TFEB: transcription factor EB; cAMP: cyclic adenosine monophosphate; PRKA: protein kinase A; SIRT1: sirtuin 1; HE: hematoxylin and eosin stain; Oil Red O: Oil Red O stain.