Figure 3.

Aldosterone and immune responses in cardiovascular diseases. Excess aldosterone production occurring in diseases such as essential hypertension, primary aldosteronism, diabetes mellitus, and obesity contributes to increase blood pressure (BP). Over time, elevated BP, and/or aldosterone cause renal and vascular injury, which activates the innate and adaptive immune systems causing further tissue injury and thereafter exacerbating the detrimental effects of the initial disease. Abbreviations: ATP, adenosine triphosphate; DAMPs, damage-associated molecular patterns; DCs, dendritic cells; IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin; MΦ, macrophage; Ne, neutrophil; ROS, reactive oxygen species; Tc, cytotoxic T cells; TGF, transforming growth factor; Th, T helper cells; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; Treg, T regulatory cells.