Table 1.

A proposed framework to assist operationalisation of salient concepts and theories of power as a means for identifying opportunities for action to address health inequalities

Sources of power		Spaces of power	Positions of power	Form of power
Economic (income and wealth)		Markets and trade rules for goods and services (local, national and international) Labour markets Ownership of corporations, businesses, housing and land	Owners of capital (individuals, families, corporations and government) High‐income individuals Managers within the economic system (e.g. bankers, investors) Regulators (e.g. government, auditors, planning officials) Collective consumer decisions	Exploitation and domination of labour and the labour market Rent and profit; housing options and choices Debt and lending; household expenditure Ability to ‘buy’ other sources of power (Dis)investment Ability to meet the costs of living
Knowledge	Knowledge – generation	Academia Research funders Lobbyists, charities and campaign groups Government and civil service	Academics Research funders Leaders within lobbying, charity and campaign groups Officials	Knowledge and ignorance (Lack of) influence Hierarchies of knowledge Access to policy processes
	Knowledge – media	Print and broadcast media Internet Social media Public space (e.g. advertising, entertainment)	Owners of media (print, broadcast, social) including government Advertisers (i.e. corporations and government) Journalists and editors Regulators	(Lack of) control of the flow of information Agenda setting Representation and framing of public issues, social groups and policies Capacity for mobilising publics and/or pressuring individuals and organisations
	Knowledge – education	Nurseries Schools Colleges and universities Workplaces Internet Families Sports	Controllers of the curriculum (government, religious leaders) Funders of education Teachers, lecturers and professors People with specialist knowledge (e.g. doctors, nuclear physicists, computer hackers) and credentials (e.g. degrees, training certificates) People with pastoral or mentorship roles (e.g. family, sports)	Agenda setting (Lack of) access to knowledge and skills Access to services and decision‐making Access to relatively privileged occupations Framing of everyday values, choices and theories‐in‐use
Culture and belief		Organised religion Cultural norms and values	Religious leaders Elders Well‐connected and influential individuals Media owners, advertisers, regulators, celebrities, presenters and editors	Replication of rules and norms which are difficult to challenge Access to networks of influence Stigma, shame Discrimination, exclusion Framing of public values, choices and theories‐in‐use
Collective organisations	Political institutions	Political parties Parliaments Privy Councils Royal and Official Commissions	Elected representatives, leaders and party officials Party funders Party members Support professionals (e.g. researchers, advisors, lawyers, PR) Voters	Agenda setting Public spending and legislative decisions (Lack of) access to and control of state power Representation and framing of public issues, social groups and policies Elections (internal and public)
	Other collectives	Workplaces and trade unions Campaign groups Democratic innovations Charities and voluntary organisations Clubs, societies and networks	Trade union officials Activists, organisers and their funders Funders Active citizens Spokespeople Support professionals (e.g. researchers, advisors, lawyers, PR) Gangs and criminal organisations Militia	Collective labour action Capacity for advocacy and campaigning Collaborative or participatory decision‐making Boycotts and spending decisions Creation and dissemination of information Agenda setting and influence Use of force or intimidation
State	Government	Civil service Policing, legislation, treaties, regulations Crown powers Public services/social security system	Civil service hierarchy Aristocracy, elites and the ‘establishment’ Ministers of state Local government	Facilitation or blocking of decisions and implementation Crown powers Positional/hierarchical Tax, (dis)investment and spending decision
	Military, physical and legal force	International use of armed forces Policing Industrial disputes Legal processes Prison systems	Government Armed forces chiefs and military leaders Judiciary Police	Use of force or intimidation Interpretation and application of the law Stigma, shame, coercion Discrimination, exclusion
Positional	Hierarchies and networks	Workplaces Domestic relationships and gender Schools Cultural activities and sports	People in senior or management positions Majority groups and historical ‘victors’ Men Fee‐paying school alumni	Discrimination and stigma Workplace hierarchies Social networks Influence