Table 2.
Evidence for risk of COVID-19 infection, severity and death
| Indicators | Risk factors | Evidence | References |
| Demographic indicators | |||
| Male sex | Severity | Death from and severity of COVID-19 was strongly associated with being male (HR 1.99, 95% CI 1.88 to 2.10) | Williamson et al40 |
| Older age | Severity | Older than 65 years were risk factors for disease progression in patients with COVID-19 (OR=6.06, 95% CI 3.98 to 9.22) | Zheng et al22 |
| Socioeconomic indicators | |||
| Population density | Infection | High population density is a risk factor for COVID-19 infection | Ahmadi et al41 |
| Number of household members | Infection | Areas with a higher percentage of households with more than one person per room had a higher incidence of COVID-19 | Ahmad et al42 |
| Low wealth index | Infection | Socioeconomic deprivation (RR 1.26 per SD increase in Townsend Index) associated with COVID-19 infection | Ho et al43 |
| Connectivity indicators | |||
| Travel times to cities | Infection | The distance between Wuhan and other cities was inversely associated with the numbers of COVID-19 cases in that city | Zheng et al44 |
| Proximity to national borders | Infection | Cross-country moment is a risk factor for COVID-19 transmission and importation | Chinazzi et al45 |
| Distance to major roads | Infection | Spread of COVID-19 was correlated positively with public transportation per capita | Ayenew et al16. |
| Climatic indicators | |||
| Mean temperature | Infection | Low ambient temperatures are associated with more rapid spread of COVID-19 | Holtmann et al46 |
| Mean precipitation | Infection | Countries with higher rainfall measurements showed an increase in COVID-19 transmission | Sobral et al47 |
| Wind speed | Infection | Areas with low values of wind speed associated with a high rate of COVID-19 infection | Ahmadi et al41 |
| Solar radiation | Infection | Areas with low values of solar radiation exposure associated with a high rate of COVID-19 infection | Ahmadi et al41 |
| Water vapour pressure | Infection | High humidity reduces the transmission of COVID-19. Water vapour pressure negatively correctly with COVID-19 infection. | Wang et al48 49 |
| Behavioural indicators | |||
| Khat chewing | Severity | There is an association between khat chewing and chronic illness such as HIV infection, elevated diastolic blood pressure | Basker50 |
| Alcohol drinking | Severity | Patients with alcohol use disorders at increased risk for COVID-19 | Testino21 |
| Cigarette smoking | Severity | Current smoking was a risk factor for disease progression in patients with COVID-19 (OR=2.51, 95% CI 1.39 to 3.32) | Zheng et al22 |
| Cooking inside the household | Severity | Areas with a higher percentage of incomplete kitchen facilities had a higher incidence of, and mortality associated with, COVID-19 | Ahmad et al42 |
| Use solid fuel for cooking | Severity | Areas with a higher percentage of incomplete kitchen facilities had a higher incidence of, and mortality associated with, COVID-19 | Ahmad et al42 |
| Disease prevention knowledge indicators | |||
| Adult illiteracy rate | Infection | Adult learning education is a tool to contain the COVID-19 pandemics | Lopes et al51 |
| Access to listen to radio | Infection | Access to media is a crucial factor in public health responses to an outbreak | Ayedee and Manocha52 |
| Access to watch TV | Infection | Media (Television) has a significant role in creating a positive atmosphere in COVID-19 | Ayedee and Manocha52 |
| Mobile phone ownership | Infection | Mobile phone calls and text messages help for the diagnosis, management and control of infectious diseases | Wood et al53 |
| Knowledge towards HIV | Infection | Knowledge towards an infectious disease such as HIV can help to control the transmission of the diseases | Bertozzi et al54 |
| Hand hygiene indicators | |||
| Travel time to water sources | Infection | Adequate water supply is essential for the control of COVID-19 infection | WHO55 |
| Place for handwashing | Infection | Hand washing is recommended by WHO for the control of COVID-19 infection | WHO56 |
| Soap or detergent availability for handwashing | Infection | Availability of soap or detergent is essential to keep hand hygiene for the prevention of COVID-19 infection | WHO56 |
| Comorbidity indicators | |||
| HTN | Severity | Hypertension was statistically significant with a higher rate of servery and death (OR=2.72, 95% CI 1.60 to 4.64) | Zheng et al22 |
| DM | Severity | Death from COVID-19 was associated with DM (HR 1.50, 95% CI 1.40 to 1.60) 1.50 | Williamson et al40 |
| BMI | Severity | Death from COVID-19 was associated with higher BMI (HR 1.27, 95% CI 1.18 to 1.36) | Williamson et al40 |
| CVD | Severity | Cardiovascular disease was significantly associated with higher COVID-19 servility and death (OR=5.19, 95% CI 3.25 to 8.29) | Zheng et al22 |
| HIV prevalence | Severity | Mortality from COVID-19 was associated with immunosuppression (HR 1.69, 95% CI 1.21 to 1.34) | Williamson et al40 |
| TB SMR | Severity | Respiratory diseases were significantly associated with COVID-19 death and severity (OR=5.15, 95% CI 2.51 to 10.57) | Zheng et al22 |
| Service availability and readiness indicators | |||
| Healthcare access problem | Death | Healthcare resource availability is associated with COVID-19 mortality | Ji et al6 |
| General service readiness | Death | General health service preparedness is essential for combating the COVID-19 pandemic | WHO57 |
| ICU availability | Death | Lack of critical care unite increase the risk of death from COVID-19 | Murthy et al58 |
| CRD readiness | Death | Cardiorespiratory disease (CRD) is a risk factor for COVID-19-related death | Zheng et al22 |
| TB readiness | Death | TB determinants outcomes of patients with COVID-19 | Tadolini et al59 |
| Diabetes readiness | Death | Diabetes affects the prognosis of patients with COVID-19 | Zheng et al22 |
EDHS, Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey; EMOH, Ethiopia Ministry of Health; EPHI, Ethiopia Public Health Institute; G-Econ, Geographically based Economic data; ICU, intensive care unit; MAP: SRTM, Malaria Atlas Project; Shuttle Radar Topography Mission; UN OCHA, United Nation Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs; SARA, Service Availability and Readiness Assessment.