Table 1.
Participant characteristics
| Characteristics | |
|---|---|
| Maternal characteristics | n = 109 |
| Prepregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 25.0 (23.8–26.0) |
| Gestational weight gain (kg) | 13.5 (12.2–15.1) |
| Cesarean delivery, n (%) | 23 (21.1) |
| Maternal insulin at 24–32 weeks’ gestation (μIU/mL) | 12.9 (11.6–14.2) |
| Cord blood insulin (μIU/mL) | 7.27 (6.20–8.34) |
| Cord blood glucose (mg/dL) | 80.6 (77.3–84.0) |
| Newborn characteristics | n = 109 |
| Gestational age at delivery (weeks) | 39.5 (39.3–39.8) |
| Sex, n | |
| Female | 58 |
| Male | 51 |
| Adiposity (FM %) | 9.0 (8.4–9.9) |
| Body weight (kg) | 3.1 (3.0–3.2) |
| BMI z-score | −0.49 (−2.39 to 1.42) |
| Infant characteristics (4–6 months) | n = 104 |
| Age (months) | 4.50 (4.36–4.63) |
| Adiposity (%) | 24.38 (23.4–25.6) |
| Body weight (kg) | 6.6 (6.5–6.8) |
| BMI z-score | −0.35 (−2.32 to 1.61) |
| Child characteristics (4–6 years) | n = 66 |
| Age (years) | 4.62 (4.56–4.68) |
| Adiposity (%) | 18.2 (16.7–19.8) |
| Body weight (kg) | 17.2 (16.6–17.8) |
| BMI z-score | −0.06 (−1.72 to 1.61) |
| Midthigh skinfold (mm) | 14.4 (13.3–15.5) |
| Triceps skinfold (mm) | 10.3 (9.5–11.1) |
| Subscapular skinfold (mm) | 5.1 (4.7–5.5) |
| Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 59.8 (51.4–68.2) |
| Insulin (μIU/mL) | 5.5 (4.8–6.2) |
| Protein pathway | Protein measured |
| Insulin/IGF-1 signaling | IGF-1r |
| GSK3βSer9 | |
| GSK3βSer9/GSK3 | |
| ERK(1/2)Thr202/Tyr204 | |
| ERK(1/2)Thr202/Tyr204-to-ERK(1/2) | |
| Inflammation | Procaspase 1 |
| STAT3Tyr705 | |
| STAT3Tyr705-to-STAT3 | |
| JNK1Thr183/Tyr185 | |
| JNK1Thr183/Tyr185-to-JNK1 | |
| JNK2Thr183/Tyr185 | |
| JNK2Thr183/Tyr185-to-JNK2 | |
| IL-1β | |
| p38MAPK | |
| Cortisol metabolism | 11β-HSD2 |
| Protein glycosylation | OGT |
| Mitochondrial biogenesis | PGC-1α |
Data are presented as mean with 95% CI in parentheses, unless otherwise stated. 11β-HSD2, 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; GSK3β, glycogen synthase kinase-3β; IGF-1r, IGF-1 receptor; IL-1β, interleukin-1β; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; OGT, O-linked N-acetylglucosamine transferase.