Table 1.

Vaccine platforms for MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV

Vaccine Platform	Coronavirus	Description	Mechanism of immune stimulation	Clinical trial	Ref
Live Attenuated vaccine	SARS-CoV	SARS-CoV envelope spike proteinrecom- binant attenuated influenza virus.	Antibody-based immune responses	Pre-clinical	[82]
		Attenuated vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) expressing SARS-CoV spike protein	Antibody-based immune responses	Pre-clinical	[83]
		Live attenuated with deletion of the E protein and accessory proteins	Induction of T cell and antibody responses	Pre-clinical	[84]
		Engineered inactivated of SARS-CoV- 2 virus	Induce neutralizing antibodies responses	Pre-clinical	[85]
		Live attenuated recombinant measles vaccine	High-titre neutralizing antibodies and Th-1 based immune response	Pre-clinical	[86]
Inactivated vaccine	SARS-CoV	SARS-CoV virus inactivated by use of β-propiolactone	Antibody-based immune responses	Phase I	[89,90,93,130]
		SARS-CoV UV- inactivated with or without an adjuvant	Induce T-cell responses and cytokine production such as IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-5, IL-4, IL-2.	Pre-clinical	[91]
		SARS-CoV inactivated by UV and formalin	Immune response (IgG and IL-4 generation)	Pre-clinical	[131]
	MERS-CoV	Inactivated MERS-CoV	Antibody-based immune responses	Pre-clinical	[132]
Subunit vaccine	SARS-CoV	A recombinant subunit vaccine contained S protein severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and aluminum hydroxide adjuvant (Alhydrogel®)	Inducing the neutralizing antibody responses	Phase I	[133]
		Recombinant fusion protein consists of 318-510 residues and IgG1-Fc fragment	Antibody-based immune responses	Pre-clinical	[39]
		Recombinant S2 fragment with amino acid residues with Freund’s adjuvant	Antibodies, Th1-and Th-2 type responses	Pre-clinical	[95]
		Consists of spike protein amino acids S318-510 with alum+CpG oligodeoxynucleotides adjuvants	IgG2 antibodies and cellular immune response	Pre-clinical	[43]
		Trimeric recombinant spike protein	Antibody-based immune responses	Pre-clinical	[134]
	MERS-CoV	Protein containing amino-acid residues from 377 to 588 of receptor binding domain	Induce humoral and cellular responses	Pre-clinical	[135]
		Different epitopes of receptor binding domain with a glycan.		Pre-clinical	[96]
		MERS-CoV- S1 subunit	Antibody-based immune responses	Pre-clinical	[136]
Vector-based vaccine	SARS-CoV	Adenovirus carrying N-terminal segment of S1gene of SARS-CoV	Induce humoral responses	Pre-clinical	[98]
	MERS-CoV	Recombinant adenovirus encoding the spike S1 subunit	Induce humoral and cellular responses	Pre-clinical	[99]
		Adenovirus-vectored consist of full length spike glycoprotein MERS-CoV (ChAdOx1 MERS)	Induce humoral and cellular responses	Phase I	[137]
Nucleic acid vaccine	SARS-CoV,	Full spike (S) glycoprotein or fragments	Specific CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell and neutralizing antibody responses.	Phase I	[107]
		Plasmid pCI-N, encodes full-length N gene.	cytotoxic T lymphocytes and CD8+ response and cytokine production such as IFN-γ and IL-2	Pre-clinical	[104]
		Designed DNA vaccine by encoding S1 and S2 subunit	Antibody-based immune responses	Pre-clinical	[138]
		Utilized three fragments of N proteins (N1, N2 and N3) to express in E. coli for designing of DNA vaccine	Antibody-based immune responses (IgG and IgG-1 antibodies)	Pre-clinical	[103]
		Open reading frame SARS-3a gene and bat like SARSCoV open reading frame 3a gene	Antibody and Th-1 responses and cytokine production such as IFN-γ and IL-2	Pre-clinical	[106]
	MERS-CoV	GLS-5300 is a DNA plasmid vaccine that expresses the MERS CoV spike (S) glycoprotein	Induce the strong neutralizing antibodies and T-cell responses	Phase I	[139]
		DNA vaccine encodes the 725 S amino-acid residues of MERS-CoV	Induce CD4 and CD8 T cells and cytokine production such as IFN-γ	Pre-clinical	[105]
Nano- based vaccine	SARS-CoV	S protein of SARS-CoV on polyethylenimine nanocarrier	Induce humoral and immune response (IgG, IgA, IFN-γ, IL-2)	Pre-clinical	[108]
		Plasmid DNA loaded biotinylated chitosan nanoparticles as a carrier for N protein of (SARS-CoV)	Induces mucosal IgG and IgA antibodies	Pre-clinical	[109]