Table 1.
Summary table of included in vitro studies.
| Antiviral PDFGS | Sources | Susceptible Virus/host organism | Antiviral effect | Effective antiviral concentration, cytotoxicity, and selectivity index | Antiviral targets | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DMO-CAP | Artemisia rupestris | IAV (H1N1, H3N2)/MDCK and RAW 264.7 cells | CPE reduction (IC50) | 31.78–42.91 μM (CC50 = 223 μM) SI = 7.02, 5.20 | Viral replication, Viral-induced cytotoxicity, Host defense | (42) |
| Curcumin | IAV (H1N1)/human macrophage | Significant reduction in different cytokines | 80 μM, no effect on macrophage viability. | Viral-induced cytotoxicity | (43) | |
| Gallic, Chlorogenic, Caffeic acid | HCoV-NL63/LLC-MK2 | Plague reduction (IC50) | Gallic: 71.48μM (CC50 > 500 μM) Chlorogenic: 43.45 μM (CC50 > 500 μM) Caffeic: 3.54 μM (CC50 > 500 μM) |
Viral-host interaction | (44) | |
| Hamamelis virginiana tannins extracts, Polyphenols (Gallic acid, Pentagalloylglucose, tannic acid, EGCG) | Hamamelis virginiana | IAV (H1N1)/A549 | GFP reduction (IC50) | Extract: 1.1–36.2 μg/ml (CC50 = 223–968 μg/ml) Polyphenols: 5.6–18.3 μg/ml (CC50 144–733 μg/ml) SI = 15.2–85 |
Virus-host interaction, Viral replication | (41) |
| Hibiscus sabdariffa extract | Hibiscus sabdariffa | IAV (H1N1)/MDCK | – | – | Virus-host interaction | (45) |
| Phlorotannins | Brown Alga Ecklonia | IAV (H1N1, H3N2, H9N2)/MDCK cells | Neuraminidases inhibition (IC50) | 4.5–41 μM | Viral replication | (40) |
| A. melanocarpa extract, Ellagic acid, myricetin | Black chokeberry | IAV (pH1N1, H1N1, H3N2), IBV/MDCK | Plague reduction (60%) | Plague reduction: 0.625 mg/ml | Viral replication | (46) |
| Adlay tea | Adlay seeds, barley seeds, soybeans and cassia seeds | IAV (H1N1, H3N2) IBV/MDCK | Plaque reduction (IC50) | 2.11–5.13 mg/ml (CC50 > 40 mg/ml) SI > 8, SI > 19 |
Virus-host interaction | (16) |
| Peanut skin extract, Resveratrol | Arachis hypogaea L | IAV (H1N1, H3N2), IBV/MDCK | Plaque reduction (IC50) | Peanut skin: 1.3–3.2 μg/ml (CC50 = 5.4–9.1 μg/ml) SI = 3.6–7.4 Resveratrol: 5 μg/ml (CC50 > 35 μg/ml) |
Early stage | (47) |
| Portulaca oleracea L. Extract | Portulaca oleracea | IAV (H1N1, H3N2)/MDCK | Plaque reduction (EC50) | 112–220 μg/ml (CC50 = 8,067 μg/ml) SI = 36–71 |
Virus-host interaction, Viral replication, Early stage | (25) |
| Blackcurrant extract | Blackcurrant | RSV, IAV, AdV, and IBV/HEp-2, MDCK | Plaque reduction (IC50) | 0.13–2.54% of blackcurrant extract | Virus-host interaction | (48) |
| Vit D | RSV A2/HTBE cells | – | – | Virus-induced cytotoxicity | (49) | |
| Iridoid glycosides | Fructus Gardeniae | IAV (H1N1)/MDCK | Replication reduction (58%) | 320 μg/ml | Viral replication, Virus- induced cytotoxicty | (50) |
| Glycyrrhizin, 18β-GA | G. uralensis (18β-GA active component-a gut metabolic product of Glycyrrhizin) | RSV (Long strain)/HEp-2, A549 cells | Plaque reduction (IC50) | 4.3–4.5 μg/ml CC50 (71.5–76.3 μg/ml) SI = 15.9–26.8 |
Early stage, Virus -host interaction, Host defense | (20) |
| Isorhamnetin, Quercetin, Kaempferol, Diosmetin, Eriodictyol | IAV/MDCK | CPE reduction (EC50) | 23–115 μM (CC50 > 245 μM) SI = 2–12 |
Virus-induced cytotoxicity, Viral replication, Virus-host interaction, early stage, post-infection | (51) | |
| G. thunbergii extract, Geraniin (an ellagitannin) | G. thunbergii | IAV (H3N2, H2N1), IBV/MDCK | Neuraminidase Inhibition (IC50) | 10.9–135 μg/ml (100% cell viability at 400 μg/ml) | Viral protein synthesis, Viral replication, post-infection | (52) |
| Isocorilagin (an ellagitannin) | Canarium album | IAV (H3N2, H2N1), IBV/MDCK | Plaque reduction (IC50) | 4.64–23.7 μM (CC50 = 263.3 μM) SI = 11.1–56.75 |
Viral replication, Viral protein synthesis, post-infection | (53) |
| Ellagic acid | Strictinin, Pu'er tea | IAV (H1N1)/MDCK | Plaque reduction (50%) | Ellagic acid: 6 μM | Viral replication | (54) |
| Z. officinale extract | Z. officinale | RSV (long strain)/HEp-2 and A549 | Plaque reduction (IC50) | 73.3–144.9 μg/ml (CC50 = 1893.8 μg/ml) SI = 13.15 |
Virus-host interaction, Virus-induced cytotoxicity, Viral replication | (19) |
| Quercetin, H. cordata extract | H. cordata | MHV (Surrogate for coronavirus)/CCL9.1 cells | Plaque reduction (IC50) |
Quercetin: 125 μg/ml (CC50 = 116 μg/ml) SI = 0.93 Houttuynia: 0.98 μg/ml (CC50 > 3.91 μg/ml) SI > 4 |
- | (21) |
| Quercetin 3-rhamnoside | H. cordata | IAV/MDCK | CPE reduction (65%) | 10 μg/ml (95% viable at 100 μg/ml) | Viral replication | (28) |
| Curcumin | Curcuma longa L | IAV (H1N1, H9N2,H5N1,H3N2)/MDCK | Plaque reduction (EC50) | 21.36 μg/ml (CC50 = 140.67 μg/ml) SI = 12.88 |
Viral replication, Viral protein synthesis, Virus-host interaction, Virus-induced cytotoxicity | (10) |
| R. acetosa Extract, EGCG, Procyanidin B2 digallate | R. acetosa | IAV (H1N1)/MDCK | Rumex Extract: Plaque reduction (68%) EGCG: Plaque reduction (80%) Procyanidin: Plaque reduction (80%) |
Rumex Extract: 0.1 μg/ml (CC50 = 80 μg/ml) SI = 32, 36 EGCG: 2 μM (CC50 > 200 μM) Procyanidin: 0.2 μM (CC50 = 191 μM) |
Viral-host interaction | (55) |
| Black tea | Black Tea | IAV/Chicken egg | Heamagglutination inhibition (IC50) | 0.41–2 mg/egg | (56) | |
| Edible bird's nest (EBN) extract | Edible bird's nest | IAV/(H1N1, H3N2)/MDCK | CPE reduction (IC50) | 36–464 μg/ml | Virus-host interaction | (57) |
| Polysaccharide extract | Marine Algae (Ulva lactuca) | IAV/(H1N1, H2N2,H3N2)/MDCK | Heamagglutination inhibition (MIC50) | 0.12–0.5 μg/ml SI = 8, 16 |
Virus-host interaction | (23) |
| Hesperetin, Quercetin | hPIV-3, RSV (long)/HEp-2 | Plague reduction (76–97%) | 200 μM (No cytotoxicity at 200 μM) | Viral replication, Viral-host interaction | (58) | |
| Grape seed proanthocyanidin (GSP) | Grape Seed | RSV A2/A549 | – | (No cytotoxicity at 5–10 μg/ml) | Viral replication, Viral protein synthesis, Virus-induced cytotoxicity | (59) |
| EGCG | Green tea | IAV (H1N1, H3N2), IBV/MDCK | CPE reduction (EC50) | 5.7–17.3 μM (CC50 > 60, 195 μM) SI = 19.6 |
Viral replication, Viral-host interaction, | (22) |
| Isoquercetin, Quercetin, Fisetin, resveratrol, EGCG | IAV (H1N1, H3N2), IBV/MDCK | CPE reduction (EC50) | 1.2–48 μM (TD50 45–200 μM) SI = 1.5–38 |
Viral replication, Viral protein synthesis, Virus-induced cytotoxicity | (29) | |
| Germacrone | Rhizoma Curcuma | IAV (H1N1, H3N2), IBV/MDCK, A549 | MDCK: CPE reduction (EC50) A549: CPE reduction (EC50) |
MDCK: 3.82–7.12 μM (CC50 > 250 μM) SI > 41 A549: 3.82–7.12 μM (CC50 > 250 μM) SI > 93.9 |
Viral replication, Viral protein synthesis, Virus-host interaction | (60) |
| Sulphated polysaccharide extract | Edible blue-green algae (Aphanothece sacrum) | IAV(H1N1)/MDCK | Plague reduction (IC50) | 1.2 μg/ml (CC50 = 7,100 μg/ml) SI = 6,200 | Virus-host interaction | (61) |
| 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid and 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid | Youngia japonica | RSV (Long strain)/Human epithelial type 2 (HEp-2) cells | CPE reduction (IC50) | 0.5 μg/ml (No cytotoxicity up to 100 μg/ml) | Viral replication | (62) |
| Glycosyl Hesperidin | IAV (H1N1, H3N2)/MDCK | Viral titer reduction (32–60%) | 12 mM (No cytotoxicity from 0 to 25 mM) | Viral replication | (63) | |
| Extracts from A. digitata fruit, seed leaves | A. digitata (Baobab) | RSV/H-1 cells IAV (H3N2)/MDCK |
CPE reduction (MIC50) | RSV: 16.2 μg/ml IAV: 0.12 μg/ml (cytotoxic at > 130 μg/ml) |
Host defense | (64) |
| Acteoside (phenylpropanoid glycoside) | Kuding Tea | IAV (H1N1)/Primary lymphocytes | – | no cytotoxicity between 1.25 and 160 μM | Host defense | (65) |
| Green tea, Guava tea | Green tea leaves, Guava leaves | IAV (H1N1)/MDCK | Neuraminidase Inhibition (IC50) | Green tea: 0.25–1.44% Guava tea: 0.002–0.58% no cytotoxicity at 25% |
Viral replication, Virus-host interaction | (66) |
| Lectin-like compounds | Japanese plum fruit | IAV (H3N2)/MDCK | Plague reduction (IC50) | 0.53–6.35 μg/ml (1,000 μg/ml no cytotoxicity) |
Viral-host interaction | (67) |
| Cirsimaritin | Artemisia scoparia | IAV (H3N2, H1N1)/MDCK | CPE reduction (IC50) | 5.8–11 μg/ml (TC50 = 153 μg/ml) SI = 13.8–26.4 |
Viral replication, Viral protein synthesis, Virus-induced cytotoxicity | (68) |
| Tangeretin, polymethoxylated flavones extract | Guangcheni (Citrus reticulata) | RSV (A2, B)/HEp-2 cells | Tangeretin: Plague reduction (IC50) Extract: CPE reduction (IC50) |
Tangeretin: 5.4–7 μM (CC50 = 375–413 uM) Extract: 6.7–15 μM (CC50 = 252–417 μM) SI = 16.4–62.3 |
Viral replication | (69) |
| Quercetin | IAV (H3N2, H1N1)/MDCK | CPE reduction (IC50) | 2.74–7.76 μg/ml (No cytotoxicty at 250 μg/ml) |
Viral replication, Viral protein synthesis, Virus-induced cytotoxicity | (70) | |
| Geniposide | Gardenia jasminoides fruit | IAV (H1N1)/MDCK | MDCK: CPE reduction (IC50) | MDCK: 87.68 μmol/L (95% viable at 1,040 μmol/L) |
Viral replication | (71) |
| Vit D, Cathelicidin | RV1B and RSV A2/HeLa Cells and BEAS-2B |
Calcitriol: Viral release reduction (60%) Cathelicidin: Viral release reduction (80%) |
RV1B: Calcitriol: 1,000 nmol RV1B:Cathelicidin: 100 μg/ml |
Viral replication, Virus-induced cytotoxicity, Host defense | (72) | |
| Lectins including concanavalin A, Lens culinaris agglutinin and peanut agglutinin | hPIV-2/LLCMK2 cells | – | – | Viral replication, Viral protein synthesis, Viral-host interaction | (73) | |
| Urtica dioica agglutinin | Urtica dioica | MHV(Surrogate for coronavirus)/Mouse LR7 cells | Viral infection reduction (EC50) | 0.53 μM (CC50 = 9.9 μM) SI = 18.68 |
Early stage | (74) |
18β-GA, 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid; A. digitata, Adansonia digitata; A. melanocarpa, Aronia melanocarpa; A549, human alveolar basal epithelial cells; CC50, 50% cytotoxic concentration; CPE, cytopathogenic effect; DMO-CAP, 6-demethoxy- 4′-O-methylcapillarisin; EC50, Concentration of an agent that gives half-maximal response; EGCG, Epigallocatechin gallate; G. thunbergii, Geranii thunbergii; G. uralensis, Glycyrrhiza uralensis; GFP, Green flourescent protein; H. cordata, Houttuynia cordata; HCoV-NL63, Human coronavirus NL63; HEp-2, Human epithelial type 2; hPIV-3, Human parainfluenza virus type 3; HTBE, Human tracheobronchial epithelial; IAV, influenza A virus; IBV, Influenza B virus; IC50, Half maximal inhibitory concentration; LLC-MK2, Rhesus Monkey Kidney Epithelial Cells; MDCK, Madin-Darby Canine Kidney; MHV, Murine hepatitis Virus; MIC50, Minimum Inhibitory Concentration required to inhibit the growth of 50% of organisms; R. acetosa, Rumex acetosa; RSV, Respiratory syncytial virus; TD50, Median toxic dose; Vit D, Vitamin D; Z. officinale, Zingiber officinale.