Fig. 3.

Representative lung-on-a-chip systems that can be used to understand nanoparticle induced toxicity. (A) Schematic of a human breathing lung-on-a-chip to study the effect of cyclic mechanical strain on nanoparticle translocation and phenotypic ROS generation. Reproduced with permission [29]. Copyright 2010, The American Association for the Advancement of Science. (B) Schematic of lung-on-a-chip system to study the onset of pulmonary edema (interstitial fluid buildup) upon IL-2 stimulation.

Reproduced with permission [181]. Copyright 2012, The American Association for the Advancement of Science.

(C) Recapitulation of fibrogenesis in lung microtissue. Continuous TGF-β treatment induced increase in the expression of α-SMA, pro-collagen, and EDA-Fibronectin compared to untreated microtissue [185]. Copyright 2018, Springer Nature. (D) Photograph of vascularized alveolar model printed by 3D stereolithography technique. Red blood cells are perfused to demonstrate oxygenation and deoxygenation. Reproduced with permission [187]. Copyright 2019, The American Association for the Advancement of Science.