Table.
Results of LMMs Testing the Association Between Refractive Error and Medication Intake
| All Study Participants (N = 102,318) | Participants with AOSW Between 5 and 35 Years (n = 38,960) | Participants with AOSW Over 35 Years (n = 48,240) | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Medications Tested | Medication Action/Class | β* | SE* | P* | Bonferroni-Corrected P* | β* | SE* | P* | Bonferroni-Corrected P* | β* | SE* | P* | Bonferroni-Corrected P* |
| Latanoprost | IOP-lowering (prostaglandin analogue) | –0.99 | 0.11 | 2.99 × 10−20 | 1.44 × 10−17 | –1.11 | 0.18 | 1.38 × 10−9 | 3.1 × 10−7 | –0.2 | 0.07 | 0.007 | 1 |
| Timolol | IOP-lowering (β blocker) | –1.05 | 0.15 | 9.57 × 10−12 | 4.60 × 10−9 | –1.53 | 0.27 | 1.92 × 10−8 | 4.3 × 10−6 | –0.13 | 0.1 | 0.19 | 1 |
| Bimatoprost | IOP-lowering (prostaglandin analog) | –1.27 | 0.19 | 1.48 × 10−11 | 7.10 × 10−9 | –1.72 | 0.33 | 1.94 × 10−7 | 4.4 × 10−5 | –0.07 | 0.12 | 0.57 | 1 |
| Dorzolamide | IOP-lowering (carbonic anhydrase inhibitor) | –1.4 | 0.21 | 1.58 × 10−11 | 7.58 × 10−9 | –1.46 | 0.35 | 3.40 × 10−5 | 7.7 × 10−3 | –0.36 | 0.15 | 0.02 | 1 |
| Brinzolamide | IOP-lowering (carbonic anhydrase inhibitor) | –1.61 | 0.27 | 2.68 × 10−9 | 1.29 × 10−6 | –2.01 | 0.49 | 3.75 × 10−5 | 8.5 × 10−3 | –0.32 | 0.18 | 0.07 | 1 |
| Travoprost | IOP-lowering (prostaglandin analog) | –1.3 | 0.23 | 2.45 × 10−8 | 1.18 × 10−5 | –1.81 | 0.41 | 1.07 × 10−5 | 0.02 | –0.18 | 0.15 | 0.25 | 1 |
| Carteolol | IOP-lowering (β blocker) | –2.15 | 0.55 | 7.95 × 10−5 | 0.04 | –3.8 | 1.02 | 0.0002 | 0.05 | –0.98 | 0.33 | 0.002 | 0.61 |
| Codeine | Analgesic (opiate) | 0.26 | 0.04 | 2.65 × 10−9 | 1.27 × 10−6 | 0.68 | 0.09 | 1.32 × 10−15 | 3.0 × 10−13 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.58 | 1 |
| Pregabalin | Analgesic and anticonvulsant (gabapentinoid) | 0.59 | 0.14 | 1.63 × 10−5 | 0.008 | 1.15 | 0.28 | 3.88 × 10−5 | 0.09 | 0.12 | 0.09 | 0.16 | 1 |
| Tramadol | Analgesic (opiate) | 0.35 | 0.08 | 2.41 × 10−5 | 0.012 | 0.99 | 0.17 | 1.98 × 10−9 | 4.5 × 10−7 | –0.05 | 0.05 | 0.4 | 1 |
| Acetaminophen | Analgesic (aniline analgesic) | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.0001 | 0.07 | 0.26 | 0.04 | 2.59 × 10−9 | 5.9 × 10−7 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.3 | 1 |
| Gabapentin | Analgesic and anticonvulsant (GABA analog) | 0.25 | 0.11 | 0.03 | 1 | 0.78 | 0.21 | 0.0001 | 0.41 | –0.04 | 0.07 | 0.63 | 1 |
| Ibuprofen | Analgesic (NSAID) | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 1 | 0.19 | 0.05 | 0.0001 | 0.25 | 0 | 0.02 | 0.95 | 1 |
| Metformin | Oral hypoglycemic (biguanide) | –0.17 | 0.05 | 0.0008 | 0.37 | –0.05 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 1 | –0.15 | 0.03 | 2.14 × 10−6 | 0.0005 |
| Glibornuride | Oral hypoglycemic (sulfonylurea) | –0.26 | 0.09 | 0.003 | 1 | –0.08 | 0.16 | 0.6 | 1 | –0.24 | 0.05 | 1.50 × 10−5 | 0.004 |
| Allopurinol | Gout (xanthine oxidase inhibitor) | –0.22 | 0.08 | 0.003 | 1 | –0.32 | 0.15 | 0.036 | 1 | –0.26 | 0.04 | 5.14 × 10−9 | 1.23 × 10−6 |
| Salbutamol | Bronchodilator (β2 adrenergic receptor agonist) | 0.1 | 0.04 | 0.006 | 1 | 0.33 | 0.07 | 5.42 × 10−6 | 0.012 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.80 | 1 |
| Ipratropium | Bronchodilator (anticholinergic bronchodilator) | 0.45 | 0.16 | 0.006 | 1 | 0.6 | 0.31 | 0.06 | 1 | 0.36 | 0.1 | 0.0005 | 0.1 |
Models were adjusted for sex, age, age squared, years of education, Townsend deprivation index, and number of medications taken concomitantly. The results are shown for medications that passed Bonferroni correction in at least one of the groups.
*
Average difference in spherical equivalent between participants under the medication and those not reporting taking the same medication (the LMM coefficient).