Table 3.
Emotional experiences and quality of life relating to COVID-19 by group.
| Estimated marginal mean ± standard error | Statistics | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Healthcare worker (HCW; n=879-905) | Other essential worker (OEW; n=789-810) | General population (GNP; n=3328-3443) | F | Signifi-cance | Effect size (ƞ2) | Group contrasts | |
| Emotional experiences (DASS-21, α=.942; PANAS, α=.903) | |||||||
| Depression | 2.82±0.09 | 3.30±0.08 | 3.24±0.07 | 32.9 | <.001 | .013 | HCW<OEW≈GNP |
| Anxiety | 2.06±0.08 | 2.50±0.08 | 2.30±0.07 | 20.6 | <.001 | .008 | HCW<GNP<OEW |
| Stress | 3.38±0.07 | 3.59±0.07 | 3.48±0.06 | 5.7 | .003 | .002 | |
| Positive affect | 3.08±0.02 | 3.07±0.02 | 3.09±0.02 | 0.6 | .549 | <.001 | HCW<OEW |
| Negative affect | 2.96±0.02 | 3.00±0.02 | 2.98±0.02 | 0.7 | .501 | <.001 | - |
| Quality of life (EUROHIS-QoL, α=.869) | 777.1±17.9 | 730.0±17.5 | 764.9±14.9 | 5.6 | .004 | .002 | - |
| Life (in general) | 16.53±0.22 | 15.96±0.23 | 16.28±0.11 | 1.6 | .192 | .001 | OEW<HCW≈GNP |
| Health | 13.01±0.23 | 12.17±0.24 | 12.51±0.18 | 3.3 | .036 | .001 | - |
| Energy levels | 13.22±0.23 | 12.77±0.24 | 12.86±0.12 | 1.2 | .295 | <.001 | - |
| Activities of daily living | 15.31±0.24 | 13.96±0.25 | 13.92±0.12 | 13.6 | <.001 | .005 | OEW≈GNP<HCW |
| Self-satisfaction | 12.90±0.22 | 11.31±0.23 | 11.55±0.11 | 17.1 | <.001 | .007 | OEW≈GNP<HCW |
| Personal relationships | 14.64±0.24 | 14.08±0.25 | 14.13±0.12 | 1.9 | .143 | .001 | - |
| Finances | 16.95±0.26 | 15.80±0.27 | 15.94±0.13 | 6.7 | .001 | .003 | OEW≈GNP<HCW |
| Conditions of living | 17.37±0.24 | 16.76±0.25 | 17.17±0.12 | 1.6 | .196 | .001 | - |
Note. DASS-21=Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (three seven-item subscales assessing negative emotions, rated on four-point Likert scales ranging from 0-3, with higher scores indicating greater psychopathology); PANAS=Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (two 10-item subscales assessing positive and negative affect, rated on five-point Likert scales ranging from 1-5, with higher scores indicating stronger emotional experiences); EUROHIS-QoL=European Health Interview Surveys - Quality of Life (eight-item measure assessing quality of life, rated on five-point Likert scales ranging from 1-5, with higher scores indicating greater levels of satisfaction). Data transformations involved square root, logarithm, and square respectively for DASS, PANAS and EUROHIS-QoL. Statistics involved multivariate analyses of variance, with significance set at p<.01 and effect size partial ƞ2: .01=small, .06=medium, .14=large. Only significant group contrasts are shown, and missing data was managed by case-wise deletion for each measure.