Fig. 1. Validation of vulnerability models.

Observed versus modelled relative biomass losses (${\mathrm{BL}}_{\mathrm{rel}}$) due to a fires, b windthrows, and c insect outbreaks. Model estimates account for the mixture of different plant functional types (PFTs). Number of binned records (N), coefficient of determination (R²), root mean squared error (RMSE) and percent bias (PBIAS) are shown in labels, while relative error (RE) in colour. R² values in the inset box refer to PFT-specific model performance: broadleaved deciduous (BrDe), broadleaved evergreen (BrEv), needle leaf deciduous (NeDe) and needle leaf evergreen (NeEv).