TABLE 1.
Changes in cardiometabolic health outcomes after 12-week intervention among control and concurrent training group.
| Control group (n = 6) | Concurrent training group (n = 6) | Net effect | ||||||
| Baseline Mean (SD) | After 12 weeks Mean (SD) | Δ (SE) | Baseline Mean (SD) | After 12 weeks Mean (SD) | Δ (SE) | Mean difference (95% CI) | Standardized mean difference (95% CI) | |
| Age (years) | 43.7 (6.1) | 41.3 (4.4) | ||||||
| Anthropometry and body composition | ||||||||
| Weight (kg) | 101.4 (12.9) | 103.5 (14.4) | 2.13 (0.88) | 97.5 (15.4) | 95.4 (12.9) | −2.08(1.33) | 4.21(0.45,8.37) | 1.23(0.01,2.45)* |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 32.5 (3.0) | 33.2 (3.3) | 0.65 (0.26) | 32.1 (3.6) | 31.4 (2.7) | −0.67(0.42) | 1.32(0.01,2.63) | 1.23(0.01,2.45)* |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 108.0 (6.1) | 107.9 (8.0) | −0.05(1.52) | 105.4 (9.4) | 104.1 (8.3) | −1.23(0.98) | 1.18(−2.79,5.15) | 0.46(−1.08,1.99) |
| Fat mass (kg) | 28.5 (7.3) | 30.7 (7.6) | 2.15 (0.70) | 27.8 (6.6) | 26.6 (4.8) | −1.12(0.83) | 3.27(0.56,5.97) | 1.36(0.23,2.48)* |
| Lean mass (kg) | 69.3 (6.9) | 69.3 (7.4) | 0.00 (0.71) | 66.3 (9.3) | 65.3 (8.4) | −0.93(0.51) | 0.93(−0.69,2.56) | 0.82(−0.61,2.25) |
| Bone mineral content (kg) | 3.60 (0.32) | 3.58 (0.36) | −0.03(0.03) | 3.43 (0.46) | 3.40 (0.41) | −0.03(0.33) | 0.01(−0.98,0.11) | 0.12(−1.45,1.70) |
| Blood pressure | ||||||||
| Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 131.5 (16.9) | 130.0 (18.6) | −1.50(1.21) | 131.4 (22.0) | 120.2 (14.8) | −11.22(3.63) | 9.72(0.38,19.07) | 1.15(0.04,2.26)* |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 83.2 (6.3) | 86.9 (8.1) | 3.75 (1.80) | 86.6 (13.9) | 79.0 (8.8) | −7.61(3.40) | 11.36(1.02,21.70) | 1.29(0.12,2.47)* |
| Mean blood pressure (mm Hg) | 99.3 (9.2) | 101.3 (11.4) | 2.00 (1.58) | 101.5 (16.5) | 92.7 (10.4) | −8.81(3.45) | 10.81(1.79,19.84) | 1.26(0.21,2.30)* |
| Glycemic profile | ||||||||
| Plasma glucose (mg/dL) | 101.5 (3.9) | 100.3 (3.8) | −1.25(2.21) | 94.8 (9.1) | 93.8 (8.5) | −1.00(1.52) | −0.25(−6.39,5.89) | −0.07(−1.76,1.63) |
| Plasma insulin (UI/mL) | 13.9 (4.2) | 19.6 (11.1) | 5.71 (4.00) | 8.6 (2.0) | 8.3 (3.8) | −0.26(2.38) | 5.97(−4.50,16.44) | 0.86(−0.65,2.37) |
| HOMA-IR | 3.47 (1.02) | 4.84 (2.75) | 1.37 (1.05) | 2.00 (0.52) | 1.96 (0.98) | −0.04(0.55) | 1.42(−1.22,4.05) | 0.82(−0.71,2.35) |
| Lipid profile | ||||||||
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 216.0 (59.8) | 212.5 (47.2) | −3.50(15.09) | 198.0 (22.6) | 211.8 (42.5) | 13.80 (13.4) | −17.30(−65.02,30.42) | 0.58(−2.19,1.03) |
| HDL-C (mg/dL) | 48.8 (9.6) | 46.8 (1.7) | −2.00(5.35) | 40.8 (5.0) | 43.8 (4.9) | 3.00 (0.45) | −5.00(−16.18,6.18) | −0.70(−2.28,0.87) |
| LDL-C (mg/dL) | 145.0 (50.3) | 142.3 (41.5) | −2.75(9.29) | 130.8 (22.0) | 147.6 (37.7) | 16.80 (9.07) | −19.55(−50.60,11.50) | −0.93(−2.41,0.55) |
| Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 112.0 (53.9) | 118.5 (44.6) | 6.50 (16.98) | 131.4 (70.5) | 102.0 (56.5) | −29.40(30.55) | 35.90(−53.28,125.08) | 0.64(−0.95,2.24) |
| Liver function | ||||||||
| GOT (IU/L) | 29.3 (8.5) | 33.0 (2.8) | 3.75 (2.93) | 21.6 (8.1) | 21.2 (7.6) | −0.40(0.68) | 4.15(−2.19,10.49) | 0.96(−0.51,2.42) |
| GPT (IU/L) | 44.0 (27.5) | 46.5 (21.6) | 2.50 (3.12) | 22.0 (7.2) | 23.8 (13.4) | 1.80 (3.76) | 0.70(−11.29,12.69) | 0.10(−1.59,1.79) |
| γ-GT (IU/L) | 68.5 (75.2) | 73.3 (62.7) | 4.75 (11.28) | 27.2 (8.23) | 27.2 (13.3) | 0.00 (3.56) | 4.75(−20.55,30.05) | 0.31(−1.36,1.99) |
| Fatty liver index | 90.8 (6.9) | 93.6 (5.0) | 2.77 (8.40) | 67.9 (62.2) | 62.2 (16.5) | −5.64(7.39) | 8.42(−25.51,42.34) | 0.63(−1.91,3.17) |
| Cardiovascular risk Z-Score | 0.023 (0.525) | 0.203 (0.416) | 0.180 (0.089) | 0.084 (0.506) | −0.136(0.358) | −0.220(0.148) | 0.39(0.04,0.83) | 1.30(0.12,2.51)* |
| Other biochemical parameters | ||||||||
| Protein C reactive (mg/dL) | 11.7 (18.1) | 8.2 (9.4) | −3.53(4.47) | 1.6 (0.8) | 1.8 (1.0) | 0.18 (0.17) | −3.71(−13.01,5.60) | −0.64(−2.23,0.96) |
| Leptin (ng/mL) | 19.8 (5.1) | 21.0 (6.4) | 1.18 (1.00) | 23.3 (12.1) | 15.7 (3.0) | −7.58(5.03) | 8.76(−4.89,22.40) | 0.94(−0.52,2.41) |
| Energy metabolism | ||||||||
| RMR (kcal/kg/day) | 18.78 (1.00) | 20.24 (1.75) | 1.46 (1.72) | 20.13 (2.53) | 20.55 (1.77) | 0.41 (1.98) | −1.09(−2.02,4.19) | 0.57(−0.59,1.72) |
| RQ | 0.867 (0.172) | 0.861 (0.173) | −0.006(0.021) | 0.831 (0.194) | 0.824 (0.188) | −0.007(0.028) | −0.001(−0.018,0.014) | −0.04(−1.17,1.09) |
| RFox (g/min) | 0.084 (0.026) | 0.102 (0.044) | 0.018 (0.014) | 0.081 (0.027) | 0.082 (0.023) | 0.001 (0.008) | 0.02(−0.02,0.05) | 0.71(−0.76,2.18) |
| RFox (% RMR) | 50.8 (19.3) | 60.6 (25.8) | 9.76 (11.95) | 51.5 (16.6) | 50.7 (12.5) | −0.75(4.92) | 10.50(−25.27,46.26) | 0.61(−1.46,2.67) |
| RCHox (g/min) | 0.148 (0.065) | 0.131 (0.086) | −0.017(0.045) | 0.154 (0.049) | 0.153 (0.035) | −0.001(0.017) | −0.02(−0.15,0.12) | −0.27(−2.48,1.95) |
| RCHox (% RMR) | 46.4 (17.3) | 38.8 (25.4) | −7.66(10.98) | 49.1 (17.2) | 48.0 (12.5) | −1.12(4.95) | −6.53(−39.24,26.18) | −0.41(−2.46,1.64) |
| MFO (g/min) | 0.24 (0.03) | 0.26 (0.07) | 0.019 (0.037) | 0.24 (0.05) | 0.25 (0.03) | 0.010 (0.020) | 0.01(−0.08,0.10) | 0.17(−1.39,1.75) |
| Fatmax (% VO2max) | 48.8 (9.5) | 54.6 (6.9) | 5.85 (3.91) | 51.5 (6.8) | 53.1 (7.3) | 1.58 (3.75) | 4.28(−8.67,17.24) | 0.50(−1.02,2.03) |
| Dietary intake | ||||||||
| Energy intake (kcal/day) | 2868 (972) | 2796 (680) | −71.5(370.9) | 2911 (518) | 2436 (408) | −474.7(272.7) | 403.2(−633.6,1439.9) | 0.59(−0.91,2.09) |
| Carbohydrate intake (g/day) | 281.0 (81.1) | 277.8 (121.7) | −3.25(47.53) | 238.3 (47.9) | 284.0 (42.6) | 45.67 (30.27) | 48.92(−74.04,171.88) | 0.60(−0.90,2.10) |
| Sugar intake (g/day) | 114.6 (32.6) | 84.7 (22.4) | −29.83(21.31) | 111.1 (20.0) | 91.5 (19.1) | −19.63(8.91) | −10.19(−73.91,53.53) | −0.34(−2.47,1.79) |
| Far intake (g/day) | 103.3 (56.1) | 116.2 (37.6) | 2.93 (25.34) | 126.7 (23.8) | 104.3 (26.7) | −22.35(15.95) | 25.28(−39.91,90.46) | 0.58(−0.92,2.09) |
| Protein intake (g/day) | 130.2 (39.4) | 121.6 (38.4) | −8.55(14.33) | 110.5 (23.4) | 107.5 (15.2) | −2.97(8.96) | −5.58(−48.26,37.09) | −0.24(−1.80,1.33) |
| Alcohol intake (g/day) | 13.4 (11.6) | 14.1 (13.5) | −0.70(6.02) | 19.3 (23.8) | 10.9 (7.6) | −8.40(10.13) | 9.10(−22.11,40.31) | 0.45(−1.09,1.98) |
| Physical activity and sedentary behavior | ||||||||
| Sedentary time (min/day) | 7122.5 (1694.2) | 6834.3 (1018.9) | −288.25(754.93) | 7323.4 (478.5) | 7291.2 (855.9) | −32.20(205.50) | −256.1(−1917.9,1405.8) | −0.26(−1.94,1.42) |
| LPA (min/day) | 9807.0 (268.9) | 9782.5 (89.2) | −24.50(147.99) | 9864.8 (118.6) | 9833.4 (47.3) | −31.40(66.08) | 6.90(−347.87,361.67) | 0.03(−1.66,1.73) |
| MPA (min/day) | 272.8 (268.9) | 296.3 (88.8) | 23.50 (147.81) | 188.8 (92.9) | 239.4 (43.6) | 50.60 (45.83) | −27.10(−357.76,303.56) | −0.14(−1.83,1.55) |
| VPA (min/day) | 0.3 (0.5) | 0.3 (0.5) | 0.00 (0.41) | 3.4 (3.1) | 25.8 (57.1) | 22.40 (25.94) | 22.40(−47.16,91.96) | 0.52(−1.10,2.15) |
| MVPA (min/day) | 273.0 (268.9) | 296.5 (89.2) | 23.50 (147.99) | 215.2 (118.6) | 145.6 (47.27) | 30.40 (66.08) | −6.90(−361.67,347.87) | −0.03(−1.73,1.66) |
| Cardiorespiratory fitness | ||||||||
| VO2max (mL/min) | 2596.3 (472.2) | 2876.0 (524.4) | 279.75 (95.79) | 2620.3 (573.3) | 2913.5 (561.4) | 293.17 (299.34) | −13.42(−893.75,866.92) | −0.24(−1.60,1.55) |
| VO2max (mL/kg/min) | 25.6 (2.3) | 27.7 (2.6) | 2.19 (0.88) | 27.4 (7.4) | 30.7 (5.5) | 3.31 (2.97) | −1.11(−8.74,6.51) | −0.20(−1.57,1.17) |
| Echocardiography | ||||||||
| Cardiac mass (g) | 207.4 (32.0) | 181.8 (42.3) | −25.57(7.08) | 192.6 (27.8) | 197.5 (21.9) | 4.88 (15.3) | −30.45(−72.41,11.51) | −1.01(−2.39,0.38) |
| Ejection fraction (%) | 65.8 (6.2) | 61.0 (1.8) | −4.75(2.69) | 66.2 (5.7) | 61.6 (7.4) | −4.60(3.87) | −0.15(−11.93,11.63) | −0.02(−1.72,1.67) |
| LV end diastolic diameter (mm) | 52.5 (5.2) | 50.8 (3.5) | −1.75(1.25) | 52.6 (3.2) | 55.2 (0.4) | 2.60 (1.54) | −4.35(−9.22,−0.52) | −1.28(−2.50,−0.14)* |
| LV end systolic diameter (mm) | 26.3 (4.0) | 30.5 (2.6) | 4.25 (1.89) | 33.4 (3.6) | 34.2 (3.7) | 0.80 (0.80) | 3.45(−2.20,9.10) | 1.08(0.69,2.84) |
| LV end systolic volume (mL) | 21.5 (10.3) | 28.0 (15.3) | 6.50 (5.33) | 22.4 (2.4) | 34.6 (10.6) | 12.20 (4.62) | −5.70(−22.31,10.91) | −0.56(−2.18,1.06) |
| E wave (cm/s) | 87.3 (12.5) | 81.8 (23.7) | −5.50(8.93) | 70.2 (20.8) | 67.6 (16.3) | −2.60(6.17) | −2.90(−27.75,21.95) | −0.20(−1.88,1.49) |
| A wave (cm/s) | 55.8 (3.7) | 59.8 (2.6) | 4.00 (3.16) | 65.8 (17.4) | 61.8 (8.4) | −4.00(8.61) | 8.00(−15.51,31.51) | −0.55(−1.08,2.18) |
| E/A | 1.57 (0.26) | 1.37 (0.38) | −0.20(0.08) | 1.07 (0.13) | 1.10 (0.26) | 0.04 (0.16) | 0.24(−0.69,0.21) | 0.81(−2.34,0.71) |
| E wave deceleration time (ms) | 205.0 (20.4) | 212.5 (24.7) | 7.50 (21.26) | 261.0 (43.8) | 223.0 (31.3) | −38.00(25.62) | 45.50(−36.17,127.17) | 0.85(−0.67,2.36) |
Abbreviations: SD, standard deviation; SE, standard error; CI; confidence interval; HOMA, homeostasis model assessment; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; GOT, Glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase; GPT, glutamic-pyruvic transaminase; γ-GT, γ-glutamyl transferase; RMR, resting metabolic rate; RFox, resting fat oxidation; RCHox, resting carbohydrate oxidation; MFO, maximal fat oxidation during exercise; Fatmax, intensity that elicits MFO; LPA, physical activity levels at light intensity; MPA, physical activity levels at moderate intensity; VPA, physical activity levels at vigorous intensity; MVPA, physical activity levels at moderate-vigorous intensity; VO2max, maximal oxygen uptake; LV, left ventricle. Analyses were performed using multilevel mixed analysis including group as a fixed variable (control group vs. exercise).
*Significant differences between groups (P < 0.05).