Table 3.
Potential biomarkers for monitoring SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater.
| Biomarker | Type | Metabolism description | Indicator | Concentration | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cotinine | Exogenous | Nicotine | Urine | 5.0 ng/L−3.0 μg/L | Chen et al. (2014) |
| 5-hydxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) | Endogenous | Serotonin | Urine | 30 ng/L－10 μg/L | Chen et al. (2014) |
| Homovanillic acid (HVA) | Endogenous | Catecholamine | Wastewater | 1.70 ± 0.88 mg/day | Pandopulos et al. (2020a) |
| Vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) | Endogenous | Catecholamine | Urine | 1.94 ± 1.03 mg/day | Pandopulos et al. (2020a) |
| C-reactive protein | Endogenous | Matrix metalloproteinase | Urine | 0.54–2.76 μg/mL | Stuveling et al. (2003) |
| Coprostanol | Endogenous | Cholesterol | Faeces | 30 μg/L－10 mg/L | Chen et al. (2014) |
| Cortisol | Endogenous | Steroid hormone | Faeces | 30 ng/L－10 μg/L | Chen et al. (2014) |
| Cholesterol | Endogenous | Lipid molecule, and components of cell membranes | Faeces | 30 μg/L－10 mg/L | Chen et al. (2014) |
| Androstenedione | Endogenous | Sex hormone precursor | Urine | 30 ng/L－10 μg/L | Chen et al. (2014) |
| Acesulfame | Exogenous | Artificial sweetener | Urine | 9.59–30.13 μg/L | Rico et al. (2017) |
| Lamivudine | Endogenous | Trans-sulfoxide | Urine | 2.2–579.1 ng/L | Hou et al. (2020) |
| Atenolol | Exogenous | Hypertension (drug) better blocker | Urine | 15.21–90.11 μg/L | Rico et al. (2017) |
| Isoprostanes | Endogenous | 15-F2t-isoP | Urine | 57–390 ng/g | Janicka et al. (2010) |
| 8-isoprostanes | Endogenous | 15-F2t-isoP | Exhale breath condensate | 16–110 pg m/L | (Syslová et al., 2008; Psathakis et al., 2006) |