TABLE 4.

Influence of surface topography on bacterial adhesion and biofilm growth.

Microorganism	Surface material	Scale of surface topography	Influence on adhesion/biofilm growth	References
E. coli and S. aureus	Honeycomb-patterned silicon wafers	Microscale	1 μm patterns displayed a significant decrease in bacterial adhesion and a subsequent antibacterial effect	Yang et al., 2015
S. epidermidis and E. coli	Fuctionalized photoresist on silicon wafers	Microscale	Periodicities in the range of the cell size increased bacterial retention. Smaller periodicities reduced retention	Helbig et al., 2016
S. epidermidis	Polyethylene glycol-grafted, textured polyurethane urea films	Microscale	Texturing reduced bacterial adhesion. Chemical grafting further reduced bacterial adhesion	Xu and Siedlecki, 2017
P. aeruginosa	Norland Optical Adhesive textured on PDMS	Microscale	Texturing reduced bacterial adhesion	Chang et al., 2018
S. epidermidis	Bio-inspired rose petal-textured surfaces (made by UV-epoxy)	Microscale	Texturing reduced bacterial adhesion	Cao et al., 2019
E. coli and S. aureus	Laser-modified polyethylene	Microscale	Adhesion of E. coli was reduced while adhesion of S. aureus was not affected	Schwibbert et al., 2019
E. coli and S. aureus	Sharkskin and its Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) replicates	Microscale	Protruding surface features inhibited biofilm development	Chien et al., 2020
S. epidermidis, S. aureus, and P. aeruginosa	Textured fluorinated alkoxyphosphazene surface	Microscale	Patterning led to significant reductions in bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation	Tang et al., 2021
P. gingivalis	Gecko skin	Micro/nano scale	Micro/nanostructures displayed an antibacterial effect	Watson et al., 2015
S. mutans and P. gingivalis	Gecko skin and equivalent acrylic replicates	Micro/nano scale	Micro/nanostructures disrupted normal bacterial adhesion and prevented biofilms by killing bacteria	Li et al., 2017
E. coli and S. aureus	Stainless steel with laser-induced surface structures	Micro/nano scale	E. coli retention was highest when the characteristic dimensions were much larger than the cell size. S. aureus retention was inhibited under the same conditions	Lutey et al., 2018
P. aeruginosa and S. aureus	Gold-coated polystyrene	Micro/nano scale	Topography led to areas unavailable for bacterial attachment	Nguyen et al., 2018
P. aeruginosa and S. aureus	NiTi sheets with laser-ablation and fluorination	Micro/nano scale	Biofilm formation was suppressed along with the substantial killing of colonized bacteria	Ma et al., 2020
E. coli	Dragonfly wing	Nanoscale	Nanostructures displayed an antibacterial effect	Bandara et al., 2017
P. aeruginosa and S. aureus	Black silicon	Nanoscale	Smaller and densely packed pillars exhibited bactericidal activity and a subsequent decrease in attached cells	Linklater et al., 2017
S. aureus	Etched hydrophobized silicon wafers	Nanoscale	Larger nanostructures led to reduced adhesion. Taller nanostructures did not affect adhesion but had a bactericidal effect	Spengler et al., 2019
S. aureus	Cicada wing pattern on polyether ether ketone (PEEK) with zinc oxide coating	Nanoscale	Patterned surfaces led to lower bacterial adhesion, wider antimicrobial range, and longer antibacterial durability	Ye et al., 2019
E. coli and S. aureus	Laser-nanostructured zirconium-based bulk metallic glasses	Nanoscale	Nanostructuring led to a significant reduction in bacterial adhesion	Du et al., 2020