Table 2.

Overview of cell population phenotypical analysis using single-cell microfluidic impedance cytometry discussed in Section 4.

Sample Type	Focus	Sample Composition	Sample Concentration/ Flow-rate/Cell Throughput	Acquisition Conditions (Frequencies, Voltage & Channel cross-section)	Characterization Metrics & Methods	Ref.
Algae	Viability assessment of bacterium-sized green algae	Picochlorum SE3 algae (~2–3 μm cell diameter); (ref. particles: *PS beads)	†NCCD ‡NFRD	500 kHz to 30 MHz (8 simultaneous frequencies) §NSVD 30 μm × 8 μm	Magnitude & Opacity (Magnitude 20 MHz/Magnitude 500 kHz)	Sui et al. 202055
C. elegans	Identification of C. elegans developmental stages	C. elegans (~200 μm – 1.2 mm length)	†NCCD 30 μL/min	300 kHz 1.5 V amplitude 160 μm × 130 μm	Transit Time & Magnitude	Zhu et al. 2018108
Cancer Cells	Discrimination of dissociated tumour cell lines from major cancer types	Lung, thyroid, breast, ovarian, and kidney normal and cancer cells (~10–20 μm cell diameter); (testing particles: peripheral blood mononucleated cells, RBCs)	†NCCD 50 μL/min	250 kHz §NSVD 25 μm × 25 μm	Transit-time & Signal peak-to-peak voltage	Desai et al. 2019194
Cancer Cells	Characterization of phenotypical properties of circulating tumour cells	Lung cancer cell lines A549 and MLO-Y4; Isolated CTCs from hepatic, oral and lung cancer (~10–20 μm cell diameter)	2 × 104 cells/mL 50, 100 and 150 μL/h	1 kHz & 100 kHz §NSVD 6–10 μm × 6–10 μm	Transit-time, Magnitude, Phase & Dielectric Properties (Cmem & σcyt); Equivalent Circuit Models	Chiu et al. 2017162
Cancer Cells	Characterization of phenotypical properties of tumour cell lines	Lung cancer cell line A549, Adenoid carcinoma cell line SACC-83 and lung metastasis cell line SACC-LM (~10–20 μm cell diameter)	5 × 106 cells/mL ‡NFRD	100 kHz & 250 kHz §NSVD 11 μm × 9 μm	Transit-time, Magnitude, Phase & Dielectric Properties (Cmem & σcyt); Equivalent Circuit Models	Zhang et al. 2019163
Cancer Cells	Characterization of phenotypical properties of single-nuclei	Nuclei from cancer cell lines A549 and SW620	1 × 106 nuclei/mL ‡NFRD	1 kHz to 250 kHz 0.2 V amplitude 5–8 μm × 5–7 μm	Magnitude, Phase & Dielectric Properties (Cne, Rne, & Rnp); Equivalent Circuit Models	Liang et al. 2019165
Cancer Cells	Characterization of pancreatic tumourigenicity phenotypes	Pancreatic tumour xenografts from metastatic (T366 and T608) vs. primary cancer of mutant genotype (T449 and T395) and wild type (T738 and T188) (~12–20 μm cell diameter); (ref. particles: 7 μm *PS beads)	2 × 105 cells/mL 1.2 × 105 beads/mL 100 μL/min	500 kHz, 18.3 MHz & 250 kHz to 50 MHz (24 frequencies) 6 V amplitude 60 μm × 30 μm	Real, Imaginary, Magnitude, Phase, Electrical Diameter, Opacity (Magnitude 2MHz/Magnitude 500 kHz) & Contrast (Phase 50MHz/Phase 500kHz); 2D Gaussian gating	McGrath et al. 201971
Cancer Cells	Characterization of phenotypical properties of tumour cell lines with epithelial-mesenchymal transitions.	Lung cancer cell lines A549 & H1299; (testing particles: HeLa model cell line) (~10–40 μm cell diameter)	3–5 × 106 cells/mL ‡NFRD	100 kHz & 250 kHz §NSVD 10 μm × 12 μm	Transit-time, Magnitude, Phase & Dielectric Properties (Cmem & σcyt); Equivalent Circuit Models & Neural Network Pattern Recognition (two-layer feed forward)	Zhao et al. 2018154
Human Pathogens	Detection and enumeration of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria	Gram-positive Staphylococcus aureus and Gram-negative Escherichia coli (~1 μm cell diameter and 2–3 μm × 0.5 μm, respectively); (ref. particles: 1 and 2 μm *PS beads)	2–2.5 × 106 particles/mL 0.01 μL/min	200 kHz, 7 MHz & 8 MHz 3 V amplitude 10 μm × 10 μm	Magnitude, Phase & Opacity (Magnitude 7 MHz / Magnitude 200 kHz)	Clausen et al. 201840
Human Pathogens	Viability assessment and species discrimination of water-borne pathogens	Cryptosporidum parvum, Cryptosporidum muris and Giardia lamblia (~4 μm, ~6 μm and 9 μm cell diameter, respectively); (ref. particles: 7 μm *PS beads)	1 × 105 cells/mL 1 × 105 beads/mL 40 μL/min	18.3 MHz & 250 kHz to 50 MHz (24 frequencies) 1 to 10 V amplitude 40 μm × 30 μm	Real, Imaginary, Magnitude & Phase; 2D Gaussian gating & Multi-shell Modelling	McGrath et al. 2017151
Human Pathogens	Characterization of phenotypical properties of Plasmodium falciparum-infected RBCs	Plasmodium falciparum-infected RBCs and uninfected RBCs (~7.5 μm × 2 μm); (ref. particles: 7 μm *PS beads)	5 × 105 cells/mL 1 × 105 beads/mL 40 μL/min	18.3 MHz & 250 kHz to 50 MHz (24 frequencies) §NSVD 40 μm × 30 μm	Real, Imaginary, Magnitude, Phase & Fluorescence; Multi-shell Modelling	Honrado et al. 201869
Human Pathogens	Detection of susceptibility of host microbiota to bacterial spore germination	Clostridioides difficile in spore and vegetative form (~0.5 μm diameter and ~2–5 μm × 0.5 μm, respectively); (ref. particles: 2 μm *PS beads)	†NCCD 10 μL/min	0.5, 2 & 10 MHz 0.5 V amplitude 30 μm × 30 μm	Magnitude & Phase	Moore et al. 2020153
HUVECs	Viability assessment of hypertonic stimulated cells	Human umbilical vein endothelial cells – HUVECs, human colon cancer (HT-29) cells and immature bone-marrow-derived macrophages (iBMDM) (~10–20 μm cell diameter); (testing particles: 5, 10 and 15 μm *PS beads)	1 × 105 cells/mL 0.3–1.7 × 105 beads/mL 20 μL/min	450 kHz 5 V amplitude 20 μm × 20 μm	Magnitude	Zi et al. 2020119
Model Cell Lines	Discrimination of live, necrotic and apoptotic cells	HeLa and Jurkat model cell lines (~10–40 μm cell diameter); (ref. particles: 3, 5, 7 and 10 μm *PS beads)	1–10 × 106 particles/mL −200 μL/min	1 MHz 0.3 V amplitude 25 μm × 12 μm	Conductance, Susceptance, Magnitude & Phase	Xie et al. 201749
Model Cell Lines	Combined impedance flow cytometry (IFC) and electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) for cell analysis	HeLa, HepG2 and A549 model cell lines (~10–40 μm cell diameter); (ref. particles: 6 μm *PS beads)	1 × 106 cells/mL 10 nL/min	IFC: 1 MHz EIS: 1 – 103 kHz 1 V amplitude 30 μm × 20 μm	Magnitude; Equivalent Circuit Models	Feng et al. 2019129
Model Cell Lines	Discrimination of live, necrotic and apoptotic cells	Lymphoma model cell line U937 (~13 μm cell diameter); (ref. particles: 10 μm *PS beads)	†NCCD ‡NFRD	500 kHz, 2 MHz, 6 MHz & 12 MHz §NSVD 50 μm × 50 μm	Magnitude & Phase	Ostermann et al. 202041
Model Cell Lines	Discrimination of live, necrotic and apoptotic cells	Lymphoma model cell line U937 (~13 μm cell diameter); (ref. particles: 6 μm *PS beads)	10 μL/min 200 cells/s	500 kHz & 10 MHz 5 V amplitude 40 μm × 21 μm	Electrical diameter & Phase; Multi-shell Modelling	De Ninno et al. 202064
Model Cell Lines	Characterization of deformability and impedance phenotypes of cancer cells	Normal, fixed and PMA-modified model MCF-7 cells (~15–25 μm cell diameter); (ref. particles: RBCs)	0.5–1 × 106 cells/mL 1000 cells/min	1 MHz 0.5 V amplitude 10 μm × 20 μm	Time metrics & Magnitude	Zhou et al. 2018116
Model Cell Lines	Characterization of biophysical and impedance phenotypes of cancer cells	Model cell lines (H460, H446, A549, 95D and 95C) (~10–20 μm cell diameter)	1 × 106 cells/mL ‡NFRD	1 kHz & 100 kHz §NSVD 10 μm × 10 μm	Extracted Properties (Young’s modulus, electrical diameter, Cmem & σcyt); Equivalent Circuit Models	Wang et al. 2017156
Model Cell Lines	Characterization of deformability and impedance phenotypes of cancer cells	Model MCF-7 cell line (~15–25 μm cell diameter)	>430 cells/min	50 kHz 2 V amplitude 10 μm × 20 μm	Transit-time, Magnitude; Neural Network Pattern Recognition (three-layer back propagation)	Yang et al. 2019115
Model Cell Lines	Viability assessment of drug-treated cancer cells	Model T47D cell line (~10–20 μm cell diameter)	4 × 105 cells/mL ‡NFRD	500 kHz & 300 kHz to 30 MHz (4 simultaneous frequencies); §NSVD 100 μm × 30 μm	Magnitude, Phase; Neural Network Pattern Recognition (support vector machines)	Ahuja et al. 201953
Pollen	Viability assessment of pollen	Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and pepper (Capsicum Annuum) pollen (~15–150 μm cell diameter) (testing particles: 10, 20, 30, 60 and 100 μm *PS beads)	5 × 104−5 cells/mL 1–5 × 104 beads/mL ‡NFRD	500 kHz, 3 MHz & 12 MHz §NSVD 120–250 μm × 120–250 μm	Magnitude & Phase	Heidmann et al. 2016169
Red Blood Cells	Characterization of phenotypical properties of individual RBCs	RBCs, sphericallized RBCs, RBCs ghosts (~7.5 μm × 2 μm) (ref. particles: 7 μm *PS beads)	5 × 105 cells/mL 40 μL/min	18 MHz & 250 kHz to 80MHz (8 simultaneous frequencies) 4 V amplitude 40 μm × 30 μm	Real, Imaginary, Magnitude, Phase & Dielectric Properties (Electrical Radius, Cmem, εcyt & σcyt); Multi-shell Modelling	Spencer & Morgan 202089
Stem Cells	Characterization of phenotypical properties of skeletal stem cells after enrichment and expansion	Patient-derived skeletal stem cells & human bone marrow mononuclear cells – hBMMNCs (~5–30 μm cell diameter); (ref. particles: 7 μm *PS beads	2–2.5 × 105 cells/mL 0.5–1 × 105 beads/mL 40 μL/min	500 kHz & 2 MHz 4 V amplitude 40 μm × 30 μm	Electrical diameter, Opacity (Magnitude 2MHz / Magnitude 500 kHz) & Fluorescence	Xavier et al. 2017161
White Blood Cells	Detection and profiling of activated T-lymphocytes	Unstimulated CD8+ T-lymphocytes, activated CD8+-CD69+ T-lymphocytes, non-activated CD8+-CD69− T-lymphocytes (~5–15 μm cell diameter); (ref. and testing particles: 8, 10 and 15 μm *PS beads)	3–5 × 105 cells/mL 5 × 105 beads/mL 1 μL /min 400 cells/min	100 kHz to 27 MHz (6 simultaneous frequencies) 0.4 V amplitude 30 μm × 50 μm	Real & Imaginary	Rollo et al. 201779
White Blood Cells	Detection and profiling of white blood cells post inertial-based separation	Lymphocytes, monocytes and neutrophils (~5–20 μm cell diameter); (testing particles: diluted whole blood and peripheral blood mononucleated cells)	1 × 106 cells/mL 5 μL /min	300 kHz & 1.7 MHz 3 V amplitude 30 μm × 20 μm	Magnitude & Opacity (Magnitude 1.7 MHz / Magnitude 300 kHz)	Petchakup et al. 201860
White Blood Cells	Detection and profiling of neutrophils post integrated inertial-based separation of white blood cells	Lymphocytes, monocytes and neutrophils (testing particles: peripheral blood mononucleated cells) (~5–20 μm cell diameter); (ref. particles: 10 μm *PS beads)	1–5 × 105 cells/mL 1–2.5 × 104 beads/mL ~800 cells/min	300 kHz & 1.7 MHz §NSVD 30 μm × 20 μm	Electrical diameter & Opacity (Magnitude 1.7 MHz / Magnitude 300 kHz)	Petchakup et al. 201963
White Blood Cells	Characterization of deformability and impedance phenotypes of diabetic lymphocytes	Normal and diabetic-activated lymphocytes (~5–15 μm cell diameter); (testing particles: normal and fixed RBCs)	4 × 106 cells/mL 50 μL /h	800 kHz 0.1 V amplitude 10 μm × 5–15 μm	Transit-time & Magnitude	Mahesh et al. 2019145
Yeast Cells	Viability assessment of drug-treated yeast cells and insect cells	Yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae carlsbergensis) (~4–40 μm cell diameter); Normal and baculovirus-infected Sf9 insect cell	1 × 105−7 cells/mL 500 to 1000 cells/s	500 kHz, 10 MHz & 12 MHz §NSVD 30–50 μm × 30–50 μm	Magnitude & Phase	Opitz et al. 201972
Yeast Cells	Detection and cell shape phenotyping of single buddying yeast cells	Buddying yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (~4–40 μm cell diameter); (testing particles: 5 and 8 μm *PS beads; 8 and 15 μm by 4 μm SU-8 rods)	107 cells/mL 40 μL/min ~3–6 cells/s	1 MHz 0.2 V amplitude 17 μm × 12 μm	Particle shape metrics & Magnitude;	Xie et al.201988
Yeast Cells	Dielectrophoretic trapping and determination of cell size	Buddying yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) (~4–40 μm cell diameter); (testing particles: 6, 8 and 10 μm *PS beads)	1 × 106 cells/mL 1 × 105−6 beads/mL 0.5 μL/min	300 kHz to 10 MHz §NSVD 150 μm × 15 μm	Magnitude	Geng et al. 2019132

^*PS = polystyrene;

^†NCCD = No cell concentration declared;

^‡NFRD = No flow-rate declared;

^§NSVD = No signal voltage declared.