Table 2.

Available genetic barcoding methods for the prevention of biopiracy.

Methods	Advantages	Disadvantages	References
Next-generation sequencing (NGS)	(i) No prior sequence information or probe generation is required	(i) High in cost and not available in all laboratories (ii) Time-consuming and high data store required	[55]
Simple sequence repeats (SSR) and intersimple sequence repeats (ISSR)	(i) Readily use for taxonomic studies	(i) Allele sizes often differ from different laboratories Lack of potential in discriminating species in hypervariables (ii) Occurrence of null alleles complicate the interpretation of data because heterozygotes cannot be identified, and reaction failures cannot be detected	[56, 57]
Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)	(i) No prior sequence information or probe generation is needed	(i) AFLP generates huge quantities of information technically demanding in the laboratory and, especially, in data analysis (ii) Interspecies genetic hybrids in the genus are difficult to identify	[58]
Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)	(i) Producing DNA patterns that allow comparison of many loci simultaneously (i) Low cost	(i) It may not be practical to identify the species of origin in products containing mixtures of species (ii) It does not seem to be adequate for analysis of severely degraded material, as in autoclaved samples	[59, 60]