| Immune system |
-
(i)
Stimulation of the expression and secretion of myokines [249], among them, the anti-inflammatory version of IL-6 [250].
-
(ii)
Promotion of the survival of naive T cells and enhancement of natural killer (NK) cells production and cytotoxicity [251].
-
(iii)
Decrease in the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines [252].
-
(iv)
Production of the meteorin-like protein, which stimulates: white to brown adipose tissue conversion, increased secretion of IL-4 and macrophage polarization from an M1-like to an M2-like anti-inflammatory phenotype [253,254].
|
| Aging |
-
(i)
Beneficial effect on the rate of epigenetic aging [298,299].
-
(ii)
Preservation of telomere length [300,301].
-
(iii)
Promotion of the removal of senescent cells from adipose tissue [302,303].
-
(iv)
Reduction in fat mass, decrease in inflammatory monocyte infiltration into adipose tissue and increase in resident macrophage polarization, from an M1-like to an M2-like phenotype [253].
-
(v)
Optimization of peak bone mass in youth, maintenance and improvement of bone mass in adults and elderly [304,305].
|
| Microbiota |
-
(i)
Modification, both qualitatively and quantitatively, of gut microbial composition and function [291,294,295,296,297].
-
(ii)
Stimulation of bacteria growth, able to modulate mucosal immunity [291,294,295,296,297].
-
(iii)
Preservation of intestinal barrier functions [291,294,295,296,297].
-
(iv)
Production of substances able to protect against gastrointestinal disorders [291,294,295,296,297].
|
| Cardiovascular Diseases |
-
(i)
Increase in cardiorespiratory fitness [260].
-
(ii)
Improvement of skeletal muscle oxygen sensing and angiogenesis [243].
-
(iii)
Amelioration of cardiac output [243].
-
(iv)
Increase in the HDL/LDL ratio and decrease in triglycerides plasma concentrations [261].
-
(v)
Decrease in blood pressure [262].
-
(vi)
Reduction in adiposity, increase in thermogenesis, conversion of white adipose tissue into the metabolically active brown adipose tissue and increase in lipolytic activity [263].
|
| Tumors |
Colorectal cancer:
-
(i)
Reduction in body fatness, insulin resistance and inflammation [264,265,266].
-
(ii)
Promotion of digestion and improvement of intestinal transit time [5,267].
Endometrial cancer:
-
(i)
Reduction in body fatness, circulating estrogen levels, insulin resistance and inflammation [269].
-
(ii)
Decrease in estradiol levels [268].
-
(iii)
Improvement of insulin sensitivity [269].
-
(iv)
Reduction in chronic inflammation [5,270,271].
Breast cancer:
-
(i)
Reduction in body fatness, circulating estrogen levels, insulin resistance and inflammation [270,272,273].
-
(ii)
Improvement of insulin sensitivity, reduction in insulin fasting levels and IGF-1 secretion [270,272,273].
-
(ii)
Reduction in oxidative stress and enhancement of DNA repair mechanisms [5,274].
|
| Type 2 diabetes |
-
(i)
Improvement of insulin sensitivity and glycemic control [275].
-
(ii)
Reduction in glycosylated hemoglobin [276].
-
(iii)
Improvement of body mass composition [277].
-
(iv)
Increase in muscle glucose uptake [278,279].
-
(v)
Improvement of blood glucose control, reduction in cardiovascular risk factors, decrease in body fat percentage and increase in lean body mass [279].
|
| Neurodegenerative Diseases |
-
(i)
Improvement of cognition [280,281], neurodegenerative pathologies (Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease) [282], anxiety [283] and depression [284,285].
-
(ii)
Increase in local and systemic expression of neurotrophins [286,287].
-
(iii)
Modulation of neurotransmitter and hormone expression [288].
-
(iv)
Improvement of cerebral blood flow and reduction in neuroinflammation [289,290].
|
| Overweight and obesity |
-
(i)
Reduction in adiposity, increase in thermogenesis, conversion of white adipose tissue into the metabolically active brown adipose tissue and increase in lipolytic activity [253,263].
-
(ii)
Improvement of body mass composition [277].
-
(iii)
Contribution to elicit and maintain a long-term weight loss and prevent weight regain (in combination with diet) [306,307,308].
|
