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Enhancement of drought-stress tolerance by spermine. Exogenous application of spermine improves the drought tolerance in plants. Rubisco, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase; MDA, malondialdehyde; ROS, reactive oxygen species; Chl, chlorophyll; CO2, carbon dioxide; CA, carbonic anhydrase. Green arrows represent spermine’s actions to reduce drought stress, while red arrows show the direct effects of drought on plants.
