Table 2.
Biological performance of the asymmetric membranes produced through electrospinning aimed to be used as wound dressings.
| Composition | Antibacterial Activity | Antioxidant Activity | Cell Behavior | Wound Healing | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PCL-PLA/GelMA-ChMA | N.A. | N.A. | Fibroblasts cellular viability of ≈101.1% and ≈106.7%, for the top and bottom layer, respectively, after 7 days; After seven days, a continuous layer of cells with typical fibroblastic morphology and lamellipodia connecting to surrounding mesh was observed |
N.A. | [55] |
| CS-PCL/HA | The optical density of E. coli was ≈0.09 for asymmetric membrane and ≈0.37 for the control (PCL), after 24 h of incubation | N.A. | Vero cells viability of ≈147.52%, after 5 days; Vero cells adhered to the asymmetric membrane showed a good cell–cell interaction as well as an improved cell/fibrous scaffold integration, after 5 days |
N.A. | [26] |
| CS/PDLLA | N.A. | N.A. | Efficient attachment of fibroblast cells to the membrane, after 5 days of incubation; Infiltration of fibroblast cells into CS/PDLLA membranes up to a depth of ≈32.5 μm |
The histology analysis, after 7 days of the wound treatment with the asymmetric membrane, demonstrated that the epidermis and dermis layer were gradually restored with the successful regeneration of keratinocytes and fibroblasts, respectively | [64] |
| BGB/BGA | N.A. | N.A. | The proliferation of fibroblast cells on the top and bottom layer was ≈184.41% and ≈208.68%, respectively, after 7 days; The proliferation of keratinocytes on the top and bottom layer was ≈190.18% and ≈183.74%, respectively, after 7 days |
The asymmetric membranes induced the reduction of the wound size in ≈83.1% after 14 days; The histology analysis of the wound covered with the asymmetric membrane showed the re-epithelialization and a structure resembling the normal skin, with skin-like organized collagen fibers |
[61] |
| PCL-mupirocin_ CS-LID | The membrane showed excellent activity against S. aureus (35 mm of inhibition zone), P. aeruginosa (30 mm of inhibition zone), and E. coli (28 mm of inhibition zone) | N.A. | The relative cell number (OD) of the fibroblast cells was ≈0.61 after 7 days | N.A. | [68] |
| PeCL(nylon mesh pore size 40)/Gel-pio | The top layer exhibited lower bacterial adhesion in comparison to the control, against S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa | N.A. | The viabilities of fibroblast cells and HUVECs were ≈179.38% and ≈353.85%, respectively, after 3 days; The percentages of fibroblast cells and HUVECs migration were 61.54% and 68.57%, respectively |
Type 2 Diabetic Mice: The wounds treated with PCL40/Gel-pio were almost completely closed on day 10, whereas the other groups needed more than 14 days; The blood glucose concentrations of the PCL40/Gel-pio group were maintained at a low level and increased after day 7, while the others increased continuously over time; Completely regenerated epidermis and dense dermis, and continuous and uniform granulation tissue on day 14; The relative collagen content on day 14 was 59.52%; The asymmetric membranes group showed the highest density of newly formed blood vessels (≈30.32 mature vessels per field) after 7 days; The asymmetric membranes group showed the most potent effect on cell proliferation (higher Ki67 expression, ≈73.23 positive cells per field) |
[54] |
| Type 1 Diabetic Rat: Showed the fastest wound healing effect; The wounds treated with PCL40/Gel-pio were almost completely closed on day 14; Showed the higher density of collagen fibers (≈61.46%) after 7 days; Showed the highest density of newly formed blood vessels (≈32.27 vessels per field) after 5 days, and decreased to the day 14 (≈12.69 vessels per field); The asymmetric membranes group showed the most potent effect on cell proliferation (higher Ki67 expression, ≈56.55 positive cells per field), on day 14 |
|||||
| PLA-VE/PCL-VE | N.A. | N.A. | Fibroblast cells viability of ≈87.44%, after 10 days; The surface of the membrane was highly colonized by fibroblast cells, and the cells’ attachment inside the pores of the membranes was also observed, after 10 days |
After 14 days, the chick chorioallantoic membrane assay revealed the complete coverage of the asymmetric membrane with the newly formed vessels (≈48.99 blood vessels) | [57] |
| PCL/PVAc-CRV (Sample I-PVAc in DMF/ETOH; sample II-PVAc in DMF) |
Sample I inhibited the proliferation of E. coli (from 1.6 × 109 to 1.2 × 107 CFU/mL) and S. aureus (5.7 × 1010 to 2.3 × 107 CFU/mL) Sample II inhibited the proliferation of E. coli (from 1.6 × 109 to 1.4 × 106) and S. aureus (5.7 × 1010 to 3.1 × 106) |
N.A. | The fibroblast cells viability was ≈108.24% and ≈145.29% for sample I and sample II, respectively, after 3 days After 3 days, fibroblast cells properly adhered and spread homogeneously on the membrane; No significant effects on cells migration in in vitro wound closure assays, after 3 days |
N.A. | [66] |
| PCL-HA/CS-ZN-SA | The asymmetric membranes showed an inhibitory effect of ≈99% against S. aureus and presented an inhibitory halo of 9.84 ± 3.64 mm | N.A. | The fibroblast cells viability was ≈106.05%, after 7 days; After 7 days, the cells presented filopodia protrusions and were completely attached on both layers |
N.A. | [28] |
| PCL/PEO-CS-AV | Low bacteria adhesion to the upper side of the top layer; The asymmetric membranes showed antibacterial activity of 99.99% and 99.97% against S. aureus and E. coli, respectively |
N.A. | The fibroblast cells viability was ≈94.44%, after 7 days; After 3 days, the fibroblast cells attached and proliferated; The fibroblasts migrated to the interior of the asymmetric membrane (8–10 µm within the polymeric structure), after 3 days |
N.A. | [67] |
| PCL-SF/SF-HA-THY | The PCL-SF layer avoided the bacterial infiltration of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa; The SF-HA-THY layer showed antibacterial activity of 87.42% (and an inhibition zone of ≈69.90%) and 58.43% (and an inhibition zone of ≈52.38%), against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa, respectively |
Antioxidant activity of 9.22% and ≈45.64% for the PCL-SF and SF-HA-THY membranes, respectively, after 8 h of incubation | The fibroblast cells viability was ≈93.44% and ≈93.82% for the PCL-SF and SF-HA-THY membranes, respectively, after 7 days; Both membranes promoted the cell adhesion, but in the SF_HA_THY layer, the fibroblast cells appeared to present more filopodia protrusions, higher cell adhesion, and proliferation |
N.A. | [20] |
| PeCL/PDO-TiO2 nanoparticles (concentration of 3% (PP3T5T) and 5% (PP5T5T))-TTC | PP3T5T presented an inhibition zone of 12.78 ± 2.5 and 16.28 ± 4.7 µm, against S. aureus and E. coli, respectively; PP5T5T presented an inhibition zone of 26.14 ± 6.7 and 36.94 ± 5.6 µm, against S. aureus and E. coli, respectively |
N.A. | The fibroblast cells proliferation was ≈107.77% and ≈110.83% for PP3T5T and PP5T5T, respectively, after 6 days; The fibroblast cells penetrated up to a depth of 40 and 35 µm for PP3T5T and PP5T5T, respectively, after 4 days |
N.A. | [69] |
| PLLA-SS (1:1, 2:1, 4:1)-NFZ (0.2%, 0.5%, 1.0%)/NFZ-PLLA | Inhibition zones of 20.41 ± 0.43 to 24.28 ± 0.10 mm against E. coli and 21.47 ± 0.19 to 27.04 ± 0.35 mm against B. subtilis | N.A. | The fibroblast cells viabilities were all above 95% for the PLLA-SS(2:1)–0.2% NFZ (with concentrations ranging from 10 to 2.5 mg × mL−1), after 3 days | The asymmetric membranes induced the reduction of the wound size in 97% after 12 days | [71] |
AV: Aloe vera; BGA: β-glucan acetate; BGB: β-glucan butyrate; ChMA: Methacrylated chitosan; CRV: carvacrol; CS: Chitosan; Gel: Gelatin; GelMA: Methacrylated gelatin; HA: Hyaluronic acid; LID: Lidocaine hydrochloride; N.A.: Not available; NFZ: Nitrofurazone; PCL: Polycaprolactone; PDO: Polydioxanone; PeCL: Poly(ε-caprolactone); PEO: Polyethylene oxide; Pio: Pioglitazone; PLA: Poly(l,d-lactic acid); PLLA: Poly(l-lactide); PVAc: Polyvinyl acetate; SA: Salicylic acid; SF: Silk fibroin; SS: Sericin; THY: Thymol; VE: Vitamin E derivative; ZN: Zein.