Table 1.
Occurrence of mycotoxins/metabolites in human urine samples in the Yangtze River Delta, China.
| Mycotoxins | All (n = 227) | Jiangsu (n = 76) | Zhejiang (n = 76) | Shanghai (n = 75) | p-Value 1 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AFM1 | |||||
| n (prevalence, %) | 5 (2.20) | 1 (1.32) | 1 (1.32) | 3 (4.00) | |
| Mean ± SD 2 (ng mL−1) | 0.35 ± 0.17 | 0.10 | 0.43 | 0.41 ± 0.12 | 0.344 |
| Range (ng mL−1) | 0.10–0.55 | 0.10 | 0.43 | 0.31–0.55 | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mg−1 Cr) 3 | 0.23 ± 0.07 | 0.12 | 0.27 | 0.26 ± 0.04 | 0.344 |
| Range (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.12–0.29 | 0.12 | 0.27 | 0.21–0.29 | |
| OTA | |||||
| n (prevalence, %) | 8 (3.52) | 2 (2.63) | 1 (1.32) | 5 (6.67) | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mL−1) | 0.14 ± 0.06 | 0.16 ± 0.08 | 0.16 | 0.13 ± 0.06 | 0.717 |
| Range (ng mL−1) | 0.05–0.22 | 0.11–0.22 | 0.16 | 0.05–0.21 | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.21 ± 0.12 | 0.14 ± 0.11 | 0.28 | 0.22 ± 0.12 | 0.699 |
| Range (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.05–0.37 | 0.06–0.22 | 0.28 | 0.05–0.37 | |
| FB1 | |||||
| n (prevalence, %) | 28 (12.33) | 15 (19.74) | 10 (13.16) | 3 (4.00) | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mL−1) | 1.12 ± 0.40 | 1.18 ± 0.36 | 1.01 ± 0.35 | 1.17 ± 0.68 | 0.416 |
| Range (ng mL−1) | 0.51–1.96 | 0.51–1.76 | 0.51–1.68 | 0.75–1.96 | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mg−1 Cr) | 1.12 ± 0.74 | 0.88 ± 0.44 | 1.33 ± 0.98 | 1.56 ± 0.87 | 0.326 |
| Range (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.30–3.34 | 0.30–1.82 | 0.37–3.34 | 0.57–2.20 | |
| DON | |||||
| n (prevalence, %) | 28 (12.33) | 10 (13.16) | 6 (7.89) | 12 (16.00) | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mL−1) | 1.79 ± 1.86 | 3.29 ± 2.39 | 1.63 ± 0.75 | 0.64 ± 0.34 | 0.000 * |
| Range (ng mL−1) | 0.50–8.61 | 0.50–8.61 | 1.09–3.00 | 0.50–1.56 | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mg−1 Cr) | 1.50 ± 2.19 | 3.17 ± 3.05 | 0.95 ± 0.34 | 0.38 ± 0.15 | 0.000 * |
| Range (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.17–9.88 | 0.52–9.88 | 0.56–1.46 | 0.17–0.68 | |
| DON-3-GlcA | |||||
| n (prevalence, %) | 23 (10.13) | 10 (13.16) | 7 (9.21) | 6 (8.00) | 0.014 * |
| Mean ± SD (ng mL−1) | 1.15 ± 1.00 | 1.79 ± 1.23 | 0.60 ± 0.26 | 0.73 ± 0.35 | |
| Range (ng mL−1) | 0.50–4.20 | 0.50–4.20 | 0.50–1.18 | 0.50–1.23 | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mg−1 Cr) | 1.10 ± 1.43 | 1.89 ± 1.90 | 0.45 ± 0.37 | 0.56 ± 0.31 | 0.004* |
| Range (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.20–6.99 | 0.53–6.99 | 0.20–1.22 | 0.32–1.18 | |
| DON-15-GlcA | |||||
| n (prevalence, %) | 69 (30.40) | 22 (28.95) | 19 (25.00) | 28 (37.33) | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mL−1) | 2.55 ± 4.68 | 5.09 ± 7.62 | 1.52 ± 1.47 | 1.26 ± 1.00 | 0.016* |
| Range (ng mL−1) | 0.50–35.00 | 0.50–35.00 | 0.50–6.50 | 0.50–3.39 | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mg−1 Cr) | 2.16 ± 3.50 | 4.43 ± 5.45 | 1.19 ± 1.11 | 1.04 ± 0.82 | 0.033* |
| Range (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.17–20.77 | 0.30–20.77 | 0.22–3.79 | 0.17–3.53 | |
| ZEN | |||||
| n (prevalence, %) | 27 (11.89) | 19 (25.00) | 4 (5.26) | 4 (5.33) | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mL−1) | 0.97 ± 3.49 | 1.22 ± 4.16 | 0.40 ± 0.44 | 0.38 ± 0.56 | 0.868 |
| Range (ng mL−1) | 0.10–18.35 | 0.10–18.35 | 0.10–1.04 | 0.10–1.23 | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.65 ± 2.07 | 0.81 ± 2.46 | 0.22 ± 0.20 | 0.31 ± 0.27 | 0.771 |
| Range (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.03–10.93 | 0.04–10.93 | 0.03–0.51 | 0.04–0.68 | |
| ZEN-14-GlcA | |||||
| n (prevalence, %) | 2 (0.88) | - | 1 (1.32) | 1 (1.33) | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mL−1) | 0.69 ± 0.62 | - | 1.13 | 0.25 | 0.317 |
| Range (ng mL−1) | 0.25–1.13 | - | 1.13 | 0.25 | |
| Mean ± SD (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.37 ± 0.18 | - | 0.50 | 0.24 | 0.317 |
| Range (ng mg−1 Cr) | 0.24–0.50 | - | 0.50 | 0.24 |
1p-values obtained using the Kruskal–Wallis test, which compared mycotoxin concentrations in the three regions, * p-value < 0.05. 2 Only positive samples (≥limit of detection (LOD)) were considered for calculation of mean values. (LOD: aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), 0.05 ng mL−1; ochratoxin A (OTA), 0.05 ng mL−1; fumonisin B1 (FB1), 0.1 ng mL−1; deoxynivalenol (DON), 0.5 ng mL−1; DON-3-GlcA, 0.5 ng mL−1; zearalenone (ZEN), 0.1 ng mL−1; ZEN-14-GlcA, 0.2 ng mL−1). 3 Creatinine-adjusted concentration (ng mg−1 Cr).