Table 2.
Thymoquinone (TQ) as a potential adjuvant therapy to minimize SARS-CoV-2(severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2) treatments’ side effects.
| Drug | Beneficial Effect of Thymoquinone as Adjuvant | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Acetaminophen | -Reversal of acetaminophen-induced lipid peroxide increase in ALT, total nitrate/nitrite, and a decrease in GSH and ATP. -TQ is effective in protecting mice against acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity, liver cirrhosis and fibrosis via increased resistance to oxidative and nitrosative stress and decreased serum biomarker enzymes (SGOT, SGPT and ALP) |
[23,53] |
| Diclofenac | -TQ could ameliorate gastrointestinal and renal toxicity induced by high dose diclofenac treatment. -TQ administration, with Diclofenac treatment, alleviated the buildup of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and diclofenac-induced cell death in kidney cells. |
[42,43] |
| Gentamicin (severe secondary bacterial infections) | -TQ showed a protective role against Gentamicin ototoxicity -TQ significantly prevented the Gentamicin-induced elevations of serum AST, ALT and LDH activities and also tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and total bilirubin levels |
[46,47] |
| Chloroquine | -TQ provides cardio-protective effects by reducing myocardial enzymes following chloroquine induced cardiotoxicity. | [48] |
| Vancomycin | -TQ reversed the vancomycin induced elevated serum blood urea nitrogen, creatinine and MDA and showed protective effects against injury | [25] |
| Steroids (methylprednisolone) | -TQ improved oxygenation and protected lung tissue from hazardous effects of human gastric juice (pH 1.2) | [37] |
| Montelukast | -TQ and montelukast have dose-dependent effects on cilia beat frequency (CBF), extending their mechanism of action in respiratory diseases. | [54] |
| Ranitidine, H2 blockers, Proton pump inhibitors | -TQ+ ranitidine showed synergistic effects and a more significant decrease in ulcer index. -TQ has novel gastroprotective mechanisms via inhibiting proton pump, acid secretion and neutrophil infiltration while enhancing mucin secretion, and nitric oxide production |
[44,45] |
Abbreviations: ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; GSH, glutathione; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; SGOT, serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, SGPT, serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase.