Figure 7.

Cancer cell mediated activation of immunosuppressive cells is promoted through secretion and expression of immunosuppressive cytokines and membrane bound ligands (e.g., PDL-1, CTLA-4), that further hinder anti-tumour response. Regulation of T-cell response occurs through T-cell receptor (TCRs) interaction with their respective ligands, following which signalling cascade action antagonizes T-cell activation. The induction of endogenous cancer cell survival, proliferation and metastasis by pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) is enabled through the CXCR4-CXCL12 axis. Such processes are targeted in immunotherapy with the aim of triggering anti-tumour immunity or direct targeting of cancer cells.