Table 2.
Natural sources of antioxidants used as feed additives for monogastric and ruminants and main effects found in final products.
| Animal Species | Animal Product | Source | Dose Diet | Concentration Product | Storage Days | Effect | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chicken | Raw and cooked breast meat patties | Grape (Vitis vinifera) pomace concentrate |
60 g/kg | - | 20 | Inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation; increase in radical scavenging capacity | [83] |
| Chicken | Breast and thigh meats | Grape (V. vinifera) pomace | 30 g/kg | - | 7 | Inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation (decreased MDA values) | [84] |
| Chicken | Breast meat | Grape (V. vinifera) pomace concentrate |
60 g/kg | - | 7 | Inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation (decreased MDA values); improvement of antioxidant activity (in diet, ileal content, and excreta) |
[85] |
| Chicken | Breast meat | Grape (V. vinifera) pomace | 10 g/kg | - | 10 | Inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation; decrease of redness and yellowness values | [86] |
| Chicken | Thigh meat | Grape (V. vinifera) pomace | 100 g/kg | - | 4 | Inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation; increase in the meat PUFA concentration | [87] |
| Chicken | Breast and thigh meats | Dry rosemary (Rosmarinus
officinalis L.) leaves (R) and rosemary essential oil (RO) |
11.5 g/kg (R) 0.2 g/kg (RO) |
- | 5 | Inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation (decreased MDA values) decrease in pH value, negative effect on the sensory analysis (taste, odour, and overall acceptability) |
[88] |
| Chicken | Breast meat | Rosemary (R. officinalis L.) powder + vitamin E | 0.5 g/kg | - | 14 | Increase in oxidative stability | [89] |
| Chicken | Minced thigh meat | Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) pomace extract (PPE) and pomegranate pomace (PP) |
0.3 g/kg (PPE) 3 g/kg (PP) |
45 mg GAE/g meat (TPC; PPE), 42 mg GAE/g meat (TPC; PP) |
11 | Inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation (decreased TBARS values); increase in radical scavenging capacity; decrease of n-6/n-3 ratio |
[90] |
| Chicken | Breast muscle, fat, liver | Tea polyphenols | 15 g/kg | - | - | Inhibitory effect on oxidative stress induced by corticosterone; reduction of abdominal fat content, plasma triglyceride concentration and liver weight |
[91] |
| Laying hens | Eggs | Grape (V. vinifera) pomace flour | 30 g/kg | - | 30 | Increase of laid eggs percentage; decrease of yolk and albumen pH; reduction of egg lipid oxidation; decrease in contents of caproic, butyric and margaric fatty acids |
[92] |
| Laying hens | Eggs | Dried orange pulp (Citrus sinensis) | 90 g/kg | - | 28 (room temperature) 90 (4 °C) |
Improvement of egg yolk oxidative stability; reduction in feed intake; negative influence on egg quality (lighter eggs, lower eggshell percentage, thickness, and strength, less orange yolk colour) |
[93] |
| Pig | Longissimus muscle muscle | Fermented grape (V. vinifera) pomace product |
30 g/kg | - | - | Decrease of SFA3 (palmitic, stearic, and arachidic acids) and increase of PUFA concentrations; inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation (decreased TBARS values); higher redness and yellowness values |
[94] |
| Pig | Raw and cooked Longissimus dorsi steaks |
Grape (V. vinifera) seed extract (GSE) and bearberry (BB) | 0.7 g/kg (GSE) 0.7 g/kg (BB) |
- | 16 (raw meat) 28 (cooked meat) |
No effect on oxidative stability and quality of raw and cooked meat | [95] |
| Pig | Loin meat mixture | Green tea (Camellia sinensis) by-products | 20 g/kg | - | - | Inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation (decreased TBARS values) | [96] |
| Pig | Longissimus dorsi muscle, lard | Rosemary (R. officinalis L.) extract | 1 g/kg | - | 5 | Increase in PUFA content; increase of oxidative stability (decreased TBARS values) | [97] |
| Pig | Longissimus lumborum muscle | Rosemary (R. officinalis L.) | 1 g/kg | - | 5 | No influence on meat lipid content; improvement in meat fatty acid profile (increase in the content of PUFA of the n-3 and n-6 series); no influence on shelf-life duration |
[98] |
| Pig | Longissimus lumborum muscle, “capocollo” (neck pork meat) | Rosemary (R. officinalis L.) aqueous leaf extract (R), oregano (Origanum vulgare) aqueous leaf extract (O) | 2 g/kg (R) 2 g/kg (O) 1 + 1 g/kg (OR) |
2.8 GAE/g dry meat (TPC; O) 3.2 GAE/g dry meat (TPC; R) 4.1 GAE/g dry meat (TPC; OR) |
- | Increase in antioxidant activity (higher GSH-Px values (O diet), greater appreciation of meat obtained from animals fed a diet supplemented with rosemary |
[99] |
| Pig | Loin, bacon, chops patties |
Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) juice powder | 150 g/kg | - | - | No influence in oxidative stability; decrease of redness and colour intensity values | [100] |
| Pig | Longissimus dorsi | Tea polyphenols (TP), Lucta sweetener, flax oil (FO) | 0.4 g/kg diet (TP) | - | - | Increase of T-SOD and GSH-Px (prevention of possible oxidations in the muscle) |
[101] |
| Rabbit | Longissimus dorsi, hind legs | Rosemary (R. officinalis L.) aqueous extract (R), oregano (O. vulgare) aqueous extract (O) | 2 g/kg (R) 2 g/kg (O) 1 + 1 g/kg (RO) |
- | - | Improvement of oxidative stability (lower TBARS content, lower oxidation degree); improvement of protein content | [102] |
| Rabbit | Meat from Longissimus lumborum muscle | Olive (Olea europaea L.) pomaces | 50 g/kg | - | - | Inhibitory effect of lipid oxidation; increase in MUFA content and decrease in PUFA content; no influence on meat physical traits | [103] |
| Rabbit | Meat from Longissimus dorsi muscle | Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis; S), thyme (Thymus vulgaris; T) | 50 g/kg (S) 30 g/kg (T) |
- | 9 | Reduction of lipid oxidation (T); improvement of colour parameters (T); improvement in α-tocopherol and n-3 fatty acids content (T); reduction of drip loss (T) |
[104] |
| Rabbit | Meat from Longissimus thoracis and lumborum muscle | Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) pomace | 150 g/kg | - | 60 | No influence on carcass characteristics, proximate composition, lipid oxidation and consumer acceptance of rabbit meat; improvement of fatty acids profile (increase of total n-3 PUFA) | [105] |
| Dairy cattle | Milk, caciotta cheese | Dried grape (V. vinifera) pomace | 100 g/kg DM | - | 28 (caciotta cheese) | No influence on milk composition, increase in the concentration of linoleic acid and trans-vaccenic acid (milk and caciotta cheese); increase in rumenic acid (caciotta cheese); darker colouring, harder consistency, less sweet taste (caciotta cheese) | [106] |
| Dairy cattle | Milk | Grape (V. vinifera) residue silage | 100 g/kg DM | 12.3 mg GAE/L (TPC) 1.3 mg QE/L (flavonoids) |
- | No influence on milk yield, fat, lactose, crude protein; decrease of urea nitrogen and total solids; increase in PUFA concentration and PUFA/SFA ratio; no influence on the concentration of total polyphenols and flavonoids | [107] |
| Dairy cattle | Milk | Pelleted citrus pulp (PCP), soybean oil | 30 g/kg of soybean oil and 90 g/kg PCP (SOCP-9); 30 g/kg of soybean oil and 180 g/kg PCP (SOCP-18) |
27.2 μg GAE/mL (SOCP-9; TPC) 31.1 μg GAE/mL (SOCP-18; TPC) 0.8 μg QE/mL (SOCP-9; flavonoids); 0.8 μg QE/mL (SOCP-18; flavonoids) |
- | Increase in polyphenols and flavonoids content and total ferric reducing antioxidant power; decrease in SFA content; increase in MUFA content |
[108] |
| Dairy cattle | Milk | Ensiled Moringa oleifera | 271 g/kg DM | - | - | Improvement of milk yield, increase in milk antioxidant capacity, decrease in somatic cell count content | [109] |
| Dairy cattle | Milk | Propolis (Baccharis dracunculifolia) based product (PBP), flaxseed oil | 1.2 g/kg DM | 13.35 mg GAE/L (TPC; PBP) | - | Increase of fatty acids trans9–18:1, cis9, trans11–18:2 concentrations, and total CLA content; increase of total polyphenols concentration; increase of reducing antioxidant power | [110] |
| Beef cattle | Meat from Longissimus thoracis (LT) and semitendinosus (ST) steaks |
Plant extracts rich in polyphenols (PERP) + vitamin E | 7 g/kg | - | 12 | Protective effect against lipid oxidation (lower MDA values; after 12 days aging under-vacuum) |
[80] |
| Beef cattle | M. longissimus dorsi (LD) steaks, cooked LD slices | Tea catechins (TC), rosemary (R. officinalis L.) extracts (RE) |
1 g/animal/day (TC) 1 g/animal/day (RE) |
- | 8 | No significant influence on lipid stability and surface redness (LD steaks); no influence on sensory properties and lipid stability (cooked LD slices) |
[111] |
| Beef cattle | Meat from M. Longissimus lumborum |
Dried citrus pulp (DCP), dried grape (V. vinifera) pomace (DGP) | 150 g/kg DM | 32.5 g GAE/kg dry matter (TPC; DCP) 89.6 g GAE/kg DM (TPC; DGP) 12.7 g GAE/kg DM (total tannins; DCP) 50.7 g GAE/kg DM (total tannins; DGP) |
9 | Improvement of antioxidant activity (DGP > DCP); inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation (DGP < DCP); higher value of lightness in beef; improvement of beef shelf life | [112] |
| Beef cattle | Longissimus dorsi steaks | Olive cake | 5 g/kg DM | - | 9 | Inhibitory effect of lipid oxidation; delay of colour deterioration and off-odour during storage; reduction of peroxide value; no influence on microbial counts |
[113] |
| Beef cattle | Fresh and cooked beef from Longissimus thoracis muscle |
Dried citrus pulp (DCP) | 800 g/kg DM | 0.92 mg GAE/g muscle (TPC) | 14 (fresh beef) 6 (cooked beef) |
No influence on TBARS concentration (fresh beef); reduction of lipid oxidation (40% DCP in cooked beef); no negative influence on texture characteristics and consumer acceptability |
[114] |
| Goat | Milk, cheese | Distilled thyme (T. zygis subsp. gracilis) leaves (DTL), not-distilled thyme leaves (TL) | 200 g/kg DM (DTL) 75 g/kg DM (TL) |
400 mg GAE/kg of cheese (TPC; DTL) 450 mg GAE/kg of cheese (TPC; TL) |
45 (cheese) | Improvement of milk quality (increase in PUFA content); inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation (TBARS values decreased; TL); improvement of sensory characteristics (DTL: best rind and taste) |
[115] |
| Goat | Milk | Acacia farnesiana pods | 300 g/kg DM | 305.5 mg GAE/L of milk (TPC) | - | Improvement of antioxidant activity (scavenging capacity increased, higher Trolox equivalent value, higher ferric reducing antioxidant power value) | [116] |
| Goat | Meat from M. longissimus dorsi (LD), gluteus medius (GM) and semimemberanosus (SM) muscles |
Tea catechins (TC) from green tea (C. sinensis) leaves | 4 g/kg | - | - | Improvement of antioxidant activity (TBARS values decreased), improvement of meat colour stability; decrease of drip loss percentage (GM); decrease of intramuscular fat (SM) |
[117] |
| Goat | Meat from M. longissimus thoracis and lumborum muscle |
M. oleifera leaves | 200 g/animal/day | 1.62 ± 0.27 mg GAE /g of meat (T) | - | Improvement of antioxidant activity; increase in scavenging potential; increase of percentage of inhibition against lipid oxidation; increase in SOD activity |
[118] |
| Goat | Meat from Muscularis longissimus thoracis and lumborum muscle | Olive mill wastewaters (OMWW) powder extract | 0.0032 g/day | - | 7 | Increase in MUFA concentration, decrease in SFA concentration; inhibitory effect of lipid oxidation (reduction of MDA content); no significant influence on meat proximate composition; texture and colourimetric properties |
[119] |
| Sheep | Pecorino cheese | Rosemary (R. officinalis L.) leaves | 2.5% | 2.14 mg GAE/g of cheese (TPC after 3 weeks from the start of the trial) 2.62 mg GAE/g of cheese (TPC after 5 weeks from the start of the trial) 3.60 mg GAE/g of cheese (TPC after 7 weeks from the start of the trial) |
- | Increase in the total polyphenol concentration in milk and Pecorino cheese; increase in antioxidant activity of cheese; inhibitory effect on lipid oxidation; no influence on cheese composition; modification of overall cheese flavour (after 7 weeks from the start of the trial) |
[120] |
| Sheep | Milk, Pecorino cheese | Fresh lemon (Citrus limon) pulp | 2000 g/day | 10.4 g GAE/kg DM (TPC) | - | Influence on milk fatty acid composition (improvement of vaccenic and rumenic acids); increase in milk protein and casein percentages; increase in antioxidant activity of cheese and total content of phenolic compounds |
[121] |
| Sheep | Raw and cooked minced lamb meat | Rosemary (R. officinalis L.) extract | 0.6 g/kg | - | 21 | Extension of raw meat shelf life (lipid oxidation and rancidity delayed), no influence on the shelf life duration of cooked meat |
[122] |
| Sheep | Meat fillets from Longissimus dorsi muscle | Rosemary (R. officinalis L.) extract | 0.006 g/kg | - | 21 | Inhibitory effect on meat lipid oxidation (MDA levels reduced) and rancidity, prevention of sensory deterioration |
[123] |
| Sheep | Milk | Concentrated Pomegranate (P. granatum L.) peel extract | 451 g/DM/kg | - | - | Increase in milk antioxidant capacity, improvement of milk yield and composition (higher phospholipid, fat, protein and lactose content) |
[124] |
CLA: conjugated linoleic acid; DM: dry matter; GAE: gallic acid equivalents; MDA: malondialdehyde; MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids; QE: quercetin; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid reactive substances; TPC: total phenolic content.