Table 1.
Characteristics of people who were infected by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) (experienced positive coronavirus disease (COVID-19) testing) and regression analysis predicting depression.
| Variables | Total | Depression | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Negative | Positive † | χ2 | AOR (95% CI) | |||||
| n | (%) | n | (%) | n | (%) | |||
| Age | - | |||||||
| Younger adults (18–39 years) | 653 | (65.2) | 355 | (54.4) | 298 | (45.6) | 4.58 | |
| Middle-aged/older adults (>40 years) | 349 | (34.8) | 165 | (47.3) | 184 | (52.7) | ||
| Sex | ||||||||
| Male | 580 | (57.9) | 191 | (45.3) | 231 | (54.7) | 12.86 ** | |
| Female | 422 | (42.1) | 329 | (56.7) | 251 | (43.3) | ||
| Marital status | ||||||||
| Unmarried | 436 | (43.5) | 242 | (45.5) | 290 | (54.5) | 19.88 ** | |
| Married | 532 | (53.1) | 17 | (50.0) | 17 | (50.0) | ||
| Divorced/widowed | 34 | (3.4) | 261 | (59.9) | 175 | (40.1) | ||
| Family type ‡ | - | |||||||
| Nuclear | 711 | (71.0) | 132 | (45.4) | 159 | (54.6) | 7.02 | |
| Joint | 291 | (29.0) | 388 | (54.6) | 323 | (45.4) | ||
| Socioeconomic status (SES) | ||||||||
| Lower | 259 | (25.8) | 91 | (35.1) | 168 | (64.9) | 55.34 ** | 2.22 ** (1.51–3.26) |
| Middle | 345 | (34.4) | 172 | (49.9) | 173 | (50.1) | 1.82 ** (1.3–2.55) | |
| Upper | 398 | (39.7) | 257 | (64.6) | 141 | (35.4) | Reference | |
| Health status | ||||||||
| Moderate/poor | 532 | (53.1) | 338 | (71.9) | 132 | (28.1) | 142.11 ** | 3.17 ** (2.33–4.33) |
| Good | 470 | (46.9) | 182 | (34.2) | 350 | (65.8) | Reference | |
| BMI | - | |||||||
| Normal/lean | 478 | (47.7) | 31 | (62.0) | 19 | (38.0) | 5.21 | |
| Underweight | 50 | (5.0) | 230 | (48.5) | 244 | (51.5) | ||
| Overweight/obese | 474 | (47.3) | 259 | (54.2) | 219 | (45.8) | ||
| Sleep disturbance | ||||||||
| Yes | 523 | (52.2) | 216 | (41.3) | 307 | (58.7) | 49.20 ** | 1.97 ** (1.46–2.64) |
| No | 479 | (47.8) | 304 | (63.5) | 175 | (36.5) | Reference | |
| Smoking | - | |||||||
| Yes | 123 | (12.3) | 62 | (50.4) | 61 | (49.6) | 0.13 | |
| No | 879 | (87.7) | 458 | (52.1) | 421 | (47.9) | ||
| Physical exercise | ||||||||
| Yes | 279 | (27.8) | 343 | (47.4) | 380 | (52.6) | 20.64 ** | |
| No | 723 | (72.2) | 177 | (63.4) | 102 | (36.6) | ||
| Diabetes | ||||||||
| Yes | 211 | (21.1) | 76 | (36.0) | 135 | (64.0) | 26.99 ** | |
| No | 791 | (78.9) | 444 | (56.1) | 347 | (43.9) | ||
| Hypertension/high blood pressure | ||||||||
| Yes | 249 | (24.9) | 101 | (40.6) | 148 | (59.4) | 17.05 ** | |
| No | 753 | (75.1) | 419 | (55.6) | 334 | (44.4) | ||
| Heart disease | ||||||||
| Yes | 82 | (8.2) | 28 | (34.1) | 54 | (65.9) | 11.27 * | |
| No | 920 | (91.8) | 492 | (53.5) | 428 | (46.5) | ||
| Cancer | ||||||||
| Yes | 24 | (2.4) | 5 | (20.8) | 19 | (79.2) | 9.50 * | |
| No | 978 | (97.6) | 515 | (52.7) | 463 | (47.3) | ||
| Kidney problems | - | |||||||
| Yes | 59 | (5.9) | 29 | (49.2) | 30 | (50.8) | 0.19 | |
| No | 943 | (94.1) | 491 | (52.1) | 452 | (47.9) | ||
| Asthma/respiratory problems | ||||||||
| Yes | 255 | (25.4) | 98 | (38.4) | 157 | (61.6) | 24.84 ** | 1.73 * (1.23–2.43) |
| No | 747 | (74.6) | 422 | (56.5) | 325 | (43.5) | Reference | |
| Fear of re-infection | ||||||||
| Yes | 629 | (62.8) | 254 | (40.4) | 375 | (59.6) | 89.74 ** | 2.16 ** (1.58–2.97) |
| No | 373 | (37.2) | 266 | (71.3) | 107 | (28.7) | Reference | |
| Self-medication | ||||||||
| Yes | 242 | (24.2) | 104 | (43.0) | 138 | (57.0) | 10.17 * | |
| No | 760 | (75.8) | 416 | (54.7) | 344 | (45.3) | ||
| Persistent symptoms | ||||||||
| Yes | 200 | (20.0) | 59 | (29.5) | 141 | (70.5) | 50.21 ** | |
| No | 802 | (80.0) | 461 | (57.5) | 341 | (42.5) | ||
| Hospitalization | ||||||||
| Yes | 208 | (20.8) | 78 | (37.5) | 130 | (62.5) | 21.79 ** | |
| No | 794 | (79.2) | 442 | (55.7) | 352 | (44.3) | ||
AOR: adjusted odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; BMI: body mass index. † Positive depression indicates moderate to severe depression (Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) ≥ 10); ‡ Nuclear (two parents and their children)/ joint (family unit with more than two parents, extended family); * p < 0.003, ** p < 0.001.