Table 2.
Details and findings of studies on the effect of the menstrual cycle on objectively measured performance in athletes.
| 1st Author (Year) | Study Design | Participants | Phases Studied | Main Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Burrows (2005) [86] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | Highly trained 1500 m to marathon distance runners (n = 10) | EF, LF, EL and LL | ⟷ Treadmill velocity at VO2max ⟷ Peak treadmill velocity |
| Cook (2018) [27] | Two group, longitudinal | National level (n = 6) and club/recreational (n = 16) figure shaping, soccer, netball or triathlon athletes | LF, OVU and ML | ↑ Peak power (3 × 6 s cycle ergometer sprints) in OVU compared to LF and ML ↑ Improvement in peak power following post-activation potentiation stimulus in OVU compared to LF and ML |
| De Souza (1990) [87] | Two group, longitudinal | Well trained runners (n = 8) | EF and ML | ⟷ Relative VO2max (incremental, maximal treadmill test) ⟷ TTE (incremental, maximal treadmill test) |
| Dokumaci (2019) [88] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | Competitive athletes (n = 11) | LF and ML | ↑ Running economy in ML compared to LF |
| Dos Santos (2017) [89] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | Amateur female soccer athletes (n = 26) | FOL and LUT | ↑ Non-dominant hamstring to quadriceps strength ratio in LUT compared to FOL ⟷ Dominant leg hamstring to quadriceps strength ratio |
| Goldsmith (2020) [90] | Longitudinal | Well trained runners (n = 10) | EF, LF and ML | ↓ Running economy in ML compared to EF ⟷ Relative VO2max and TTE (incremental, maximal treadmill test) ⟷ Running speed at lactate threshold and 4 mmol/L blood lactate |
| Gordon (2013) [21] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | Well trained females not using OC (n = 11) | EF, LF, ML and LL | ↓ Knee extensor peak torque in EF compared to ML ↓ Knee flexor peak torque in EF compared to LL |
| Graja (2020) [91] | Randomised, cross-over based on MCP of first testing session | National-level handball athletes (n = 10) | LF, ML and LL | ↓ Knee extensor MVC after repeated sprint protocol in LL compared to LF and ML ↓ Peak power (final 6 sprints of 20 × 5 s cycle ergometer sprints) in LL compared to LF ↓ % Decline in peak power (20 × 5 s cycle ergometer sprints) in LF compared LL |
| Greenhall (2020) [92] | Cross-sectional | Competitive, non-professional runners (n = 185) | FOL and LUT | ↑ Percentage of runners (57.3%) recorded their best marathon time during LUT |
| Guo (2005) [93] | Longitudinal | Rowing or track and field athletes (n = 25) | LF and ML | ↓ 500 m rowing ergometer, and 100 m and 200 m running times in ML compared to LF ⟷ 2000 m rowing ergometer time |
| Hertel (2006) [94] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | Collegiate soccer or stunt cheerleading athletes (n = 14) | LF, OVU and ML | ⟷ Knee flexor or extensor peak torque ⟷ Hamstring to quadriceps strength ratio |
| Julian (2017) [53] | Observational | High-level (National 2nd tier competition) soccer athletes (n = 9) | EF and ML | ↓ Yo-Yo IET distance in ML compared to EF ⟷ 30 m running time ⟷ CMJ |
| Kishali (2004) [95] | Two group, longitudinal | Basketball, volleyball or judo athletes (n = 40) | EF, LF and LL | ⟷ Vertical jump ⟷ Handgrip strength ⟷ 20 m running time |
| Lara (2019a) [96] | Double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over (randomly assigned MCP of first testing session) | Female triathletes (n = 13) | EF, OVU and ML | ⟷ Peak power, mean power and fatigue index (15 s modified Wingate test) ⟷ Lactate accumulation ⟷ Magnitude of ergogenic effect of caffeine |
| Lara (2019b) [97] | Double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over, randomised (randomly assigned MCP of first testing session) | Female triathletes (n = 13) | EF, OVU and ML | ⟷ Peak power (incremental, maximal cycle ergometer test) ⟷ Magnitude of ergogenic effect of caffeine |
| Lebrun (1995) [52] | Longitudinal | Trained runners, cyclists, triathletes, rowers, cross country skiers, or squash or ultimate frisbee athletes (n = 16) | EF and ML | ↑ Absolute VO2max (incremental, maximal treadmill test) in EF compared to ML ⟷ Relative VO2max (incremental, maximal treadmill test) — Anaerobic Speed Test ⟷ TTE (90% VO2max treadmill test) ⟷ Knee flexor and extensor peak torque |
| Miskec (1997) [98] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP and environmental condition of first testing session | Collegiate rugby players (n = 10) | EF and ML | ⟷ Average power output (5 × 15 s cycle ergometer w/ 2 min active recovery) ⟷ Lactate accumulation |
| Otaka (2018) [99] | Counter-balanced, double-blind, placebo-controlled and crossover |
Division 1 collegiate tennis athletes (n = 10) | EF, LF, OVU and ML | ⟷ Dominant hip abductor and adductor peak torque ⟷ Dominant knee extensor peak torque |
| Quadagno (1991) [100] | Observational | Collegiate swimmers (n = 15) | EF and LL | ⟷ 100 m and 200 m freestyle time |
| Rodrigues (2019) [101] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | Well trained females (n = 12) | EF, LF and LL | ↑ MVC (in 45° leg press) in EF compared to LL |
| Rogers (1996) [102] | Observational | Swimmers (n = 19) | FOL and LUT | ⟷ Swimming times between FOL and LUT |
| Romero-Moraleda (2019) [71] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | Female triathletes (n = 13) | EF, OVU and ML | ⟷ Estimated half squat 1RM ⟷ Peak and mean force, velocity and power (20, 40, 60 and 80% of 1RM half squat) |
| Shahraki (2020) [103] | Cross-sectional | Collegiate athletes (n = 15) | EF, OVU and ML | ↑ Dominant shoulder abduction, internal and external rotation strength in OVU compared to EF and ML |
| Shakhlina (2016) [104] | Longitudinal | High-level 800 m or 1500 m runners (n = 13) | EF, LF, OVU, (EL and ML), LL | ↑ PWC170 in EL and ML compared to EF, LF, OVU and LL ↓ 4 × 400 m running time in EL, ML and LF compared to OVU and LL ↑ 4 × 400 m running time in EF compared to EL and ML |
| Smekal (2007) [105] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | Healthy, sport participants (n = 19) | LF and LL | ⟷ Peak power (incremental, maximal cycle ergometer test) ⟷ Absolute and relative VO2max (incremental, maximal cycle ergometer test) ⟷ Power output and VO2 at lactate and ventilatory thresholds ⟷ Lactate accumulation |
| Smirniotou (2004) [106] | Longitudinal | International level fencing athletes (n = 10) | EF, LF and LL | ⟷ Squat jump ⟷ CMJ ⟷ Repeated jump |
| Somboonwong (2015) [38] | Longitudinal | National soccer athletes (n = 13) | EF and ML | ⟷ 40 yard running time |
| Štefanovský (2016) [107] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | Judo athletes (n = 8) | LF and ML | ⟷ Peak power, mean power and fatigue index (Wingate test) ⟷ Lactate accumulation |
| Sunderland (2003) [108] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | Well-trained game players (n = 7) | LF and ML | ⟷ Loughborough Intermittent shuttle test ⟷ 15 m running time |
| Sutresna (2016) [109] | Longitudinal | Soccer and rowing athletes (n = 11) | EF (day 2), EF (day 5) and LL | ↓ 1500 m running time in EF (day 5) compared to EF (day 2) and LL |
| Tasmektepligil (2010) [68] | Two group, longitudinal | Basketball, judo or football athletes (n = 30) | EF, LF and LL | ↑ Dominant handgrip strength in LF compared to EF and LL Non-dominant handgrip strength fluctuates between phases (not specified) ↑ Vertical jump in EF compared to LL ⟷ 20 m running time |
| Tounsi (2018) [110] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on time of day of testing during each MCP | High-level soccer athletes (n = 11) | EF, LF and ML | ⟷ Repeated shuttle-sprint ability test ⟷ Five-jump test ⟷ Yo-Yo IRT distance |
| Tsampoukos (2010) [54] | Randomised, counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | University soccer, hockey, track and field, basketball or rugby athletes (n = 14) | EF, OVU and ML | ⟷ Peak power, mean power, peak speed, mean speed and fatigue index (2 × 30 s non-motorised treadmill sprints) ⟷ Lactate accumulation |
| Vaiksaar (2011a) [111] | Counter-balanced based on MCP of first testing session | National/international (n = 8) and recreational (n = 7) rowers | LF and ML | ⟷ Absolute and relative VO2max (incremental, maximal rowing ergometer test) ⟷ Peak power (incremental, maximal rowing ergometer test) ⟷ Lactate accumulation |
| Vaiksaar (2011b) [46] | Counter-balanced study based on MCP of first testing session | National-level rowers (n = 11) | LF and ML | ⟷ Lactate accumulation (70% VO2max rowing ergometer test) |
n = sample size; MCP = menstrual cycle phase; OC = oral contraceptive; EF = early follicular phase; LF = late follicular phase; OVU = ovulatory phase; EL = early luteal phase; ML = mid luteal phase; LL = late luteal phase; FOL = follicular phase; LUT; luteal phase; VO2max = maximal oxygen uptake; TTE = time to exhaustion; VO2 = oxygen uptake; PWC170 = physical working capacity at heart rate of 170 beats per minute; IRT = intermittent recovery test; IET = intermittent endurance test; CMJ = countermovement jump; 1RM = one repetition maximum; MVC = maximal voluntary contraction; ↑ = increased; ↓ = decreased; ⟷ = no difference between MC phases.