Table 4.
Major technologies available for the production of LNPs.
| Lignin | Tech. | Size (nm) | pH | Shape | Advantages | Application(s) | Limits | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SL | SEP | 50–250 | 7 | S | no aggregation | drug delivery and stabilizer | toxic chemicals | [109,110] |
| SL | AP | 50–250 | >7 | I | - | drug delivery, bioplastic | - | [111,112] |
| AL | AFR | 30–100 | <12 | S | high yield | bioplastic | aggregate | [94,113,114] |
| AL | AP | 30–100 | <12 | S | high stability | sunscreen | high ionic strength | [115] |
| AL | MR | 30–100 | <12 | S | dispersibility | antioxidant, antimicrobial | toxic chemicals | [116,117] |
| AL | SEP | 30–100 | <12 | S | - | antioxidant, antimicrobial | toxic chemicals | [115,118] |
| KL | AFR | 38–250 | 4–12 | I | stability | adhesives | - | [113,119] |
| KL | PCA | 38–250 | 4–12 | S | high solubility | commodities | high ionic strength | [120,121] |
| KL | FP | 38–250 | 4–12 | S | UV-shielding | materials | - | [110,122] |
| KL | MP | 38–250 | 4–12 | S | - | commodities | - | [110,122] |
| OL | AFR | 30–250 | 3.5–8 | S | high yield | adhesives | aggregate | [110,113,116] |
| OL | FP | 30–250 | 3.5–8 | S | stability | commodities | high ionic strength | [122] |
| OL | SEP | 30–250 | 3.5–8 | S | stability | materials | toxic chemicals | [112] |
S: spherical shape. I: irregular shape. SEP: solvent exchange precipitation. AP: acid precipitation. AFR: aerosol flow reactor. MR: microchannel reactor. PCA: compressed fluid antisolvent technique. FP: flash-precipitation. MP: mini-emulsion polymerization.