Table 2.

Summary of nanoparticles developed as a therapeutic approach against interkingdom biofilms.

Nanoparticles	Formulation and Associated Compounds	Applications	Mechanism of Action	Ref.
Polymeric NPs	chitosan sodiumtripolyphosphate curcumin	Medical devices-associated infections C. albicans–S. aureus	Increase bioavailability Enhanced antimicrobial activity	[124]
	polylactic acid, dextran sulfate, CTAB (cationic) curcumin	Oral biofilms S. mutans–C. albicans–MRSA	Increase bioavailability Improve water solubility Decrease cytotoxicity Improve photodynamic effect	[136]
	chitosan sodiumtriphosphate Functionalization: CDH, DNase I	Medical devices-associated infections C. albicans–S. aureus	Disrupt EPS Enhanced antimicrobial activity Improve physical stability	[137]
	chitosan NPs ozonated olive oil	Endodontic infections E. faecalis–S. mutans–C. albicans	Synergy between ozonated olive oil and chitosan NPs	[138]
	chitosan tripolyphosphate	Early childhood caries S. mutans–C. albicans	Enhanced antimicrobial activity	[139]
	alginate, copper Solvents: EtOAc, DMC A. platensis lipid extract	C. albicans–C. acnes	Increase bioavailability	[140]
Magnetic NPs	iron chloride salts ammonium hydroxide Coating: aminosilane chlorhexidine	Oral biofilms C. albicans–MRSA–P. aeruginosa–E. faecalis	Decrease effective dosage Enhanced bioavailability Enhanced biocompatibility Enhanced antimicrobial activity	[141]
	iron oxide NPs Coating: chitosan chlorhexidine	Oral biofilms C. albicans–S. mutans	Decrease effective dosage Enhanced bioavailability	[142]
	iron oxide NPs Coating: chitosan miconazole	Caries, dentures, gingivitis C. albicans–F. nucleatum–F. nucleatum vincentii–V. dispar–A. naeslundii–Streptococci–L. zeae–L. casei–R. dentocariosa	Increase bioavailability	[143,144]
Mesoporous silica NPs	CTAB, tetraethoxysilane Functionalization: phenazine-1-carboxamide	Infections associated to urethral catheters C. albicans–S. aureus	Increase bioavailability Lower effective dosage Controlled drug release	[145]
Silver NPs	silver nitrate	Infections associated with catheters C. albicans–MRSA	Enhanced antimicrobial activity Prevent surface colonization	[146,147]
	branched polyethylenimine silver nitrate	Biofilm-based nosocomial infections C. albicans–P. aeruginosa–S. aureus	Prevent surface colonization	[148]
	polyamide, silver nitrate Eucalyptus citriodora leaves extract	Ventilator-associated pneumonia C. albicans–P. aeruginosa–S. aureus	Prolonged antimicrobial activity	[149]

NPs: nanoparticles; CTAB: cetyltrimethylammonium bromide; MRSA: methicillin-resistant S. aureus; CDH: cellobiose dehydrogenase; DNaseI: deoxyribonuclease I; EPS: extracellular polysaccharides; EtOAc: ethyl acetate; DMC: dimethyl carbonate.