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Mode of action of astaxanthin by inhibiting oxidative stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and activating transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). Astaxanthin suppresses nuclear expression of NF-κB and MAPK to reduce downstream production of proinflammatory cytokines. NF-κB: Nuclear factor-κB; MMP: matrix metallopeptidase; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; ARE: Antioxidant response elements.
