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. 2020 Jul 15;58(4):1295–1301. doi: 10.1007/s13197-020-04638-5

Gluten-free green banana flour muffins: chemical, physical, antioxidant, digestibility and sensory analysis

Marjana Radünz 1,✉, Taiane Mota Camargo 1, Camila Francine Paes Nunes 1, Elisa Dos Santos Pereira 1, Jardel Araújo Ribeiro 1, Helen Cristina Dos Santos Hackbart 1, Amanda Fabres Oliveira Radünz 2, André Luiz Radünz 3, Márcia Arocha Gularte 4, Fabrizio Da Fonseca Barbosa 4
PMCID: PMC7925776  PMID: 33746257

Abstract

Considering the low availability of gluten-free products that are offered an affordable price and good sensory characteristics, the main objective of the study was developed a gluten-free muffin based on green banana flour and evaluate their physical–chemical and sensorial aspects. The quality of the muffin was analyzed through such moisture content, ashes, proteins, lipids, fiber, carbohydrates, total caloric content, yield mass, weight loss in the supply, antioxidant activity, protein digestibility, and hedonic scale. The results showed that the gluten-free muffin had a moisture content of 26.7%, ash of 2.39%, lipids of 15.4%, proteins of 10.3%, fibers of 1.2%, carbohydrates of 44.0%, the total caloric value of 261.2 kcal, high protein digestibility and moderate antioxidant activity. The acceptability index was 84.5%. It has been concluded that gluten-free muffin with green banana flour is a viable alternative for the reason that they have higher protein content than other alternative flours.

Keywords: Nutritional value, Eating habits, Functional foods, Celiac disease

Introduction

Currently, the world market has been growing in the development of products considered healthy due to the increase in the incidence of chronic non comnunicable-diseases, such as celiac disease (CD) (Bolzani 2016; Gutiérrez 2018). This disease is a gluten intolerance eating disorder that affects 1% of the world population, characterized as an inflammatory process on the small intestine triggered by gluten proteins of cereals such as wheat, barley, triticale, oats, and rye. CD also causes anomalies in the intestine, leading to nutritional deficiency and anemia, obligating the disease carrier to undergo a rigorous, gluten-free diet (Gutiérrez 2018; Croitoru et al. 2018; Palacio et al. 2018). Most gluten-free products are presenting flours deficient in dietary fiber (Palacio et al. 2018). Alternatively, unconventional flours having in their compositionhigh content of bioactive compounds and fibers if compared to whole-wheat flour, are being used (Camelo-Méndez et al. 2018). These alternative flours are derived mostly from nuts and cereals such as rice, coconut, chia and linseed and fruits such as eggplant and bananas.

The banana (Musa, spp.) isone of the fruits of the tropical climate of greater world production, becomes an option for the development of new products (FAO 2017). Green banana flour, often produced from industrial by-products, is rich in minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, and potassium. Also, its principalconstituent is starch, which, as the fruit matures, is converted into sugars (Nath et al. 2018).The presence of resistant starch gives the green banana several health benefits because its ability to retain water and ferment in the intestinal colon helps the gastrointestinal tract to function, thus having similar featuresas dietary fiber. The result of the fermentation of starch in the intestine is the production of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane, and short chain fatty acids, of which, butyrate, propionate, and acetate are the main ones, exerting physiological digestive functions (Borges et al. 2009; Ranieri and Delani 2014).

There are studies focused on the development of new gluten-free products, prioritizing improvement in appearance, texture, aroma, and flavor (Păucean et al. 2015; Talens et al. 2017; Gutiérrez 2018; Palacio et al. 2018; Nath et al. 2018).Among them, the products of baking stand out, because they are part of the daily meals. The muffins have gained significantimportance in these researches, due to their sensorial qualities, practicality in the preparation and their compact size that facilitates the transport (Nath et al. 2018). Due to all the benefits of green banana flour for health, especially of celiac people, and also for the practicality of muffins consumption, this study aimed the development of muffins based on green banana flour evaluating their physical, chemical, antioxidant, digestibility and sensorial characteristics.

Material and methods

Acquisition of material and formulation of muffins

The green banana flour and the other ingredients used in the formulation of the muffins were purchased in the local commerce of Pelotas city, in the Rio Grande do Sul State/Brazil. The cookies were formulated in the Bakery Laboratory of the Food Chemistry Course of the Federal University of Pelotas. The formulations were performed according to Martínez-Cervera et al. (2012) with some modifications (Table 1). First, the egg whites were beaten in an Arno brand beater at full speed for 5 min, after the refined sugar was added and beaten again. In another refractory, the egg yolks and the skim milk were beaten until they became consistent, and then the soybean oil was added during the beating on an electric mixer. Then the green banana flour and the chemical yeast were added and beaten until the dough became homogeneous. The muffins were baked in the Fischer 1750 W brand oven at 170° C for 15 min.

Table 1.

Formulations of green banana flour muffins

Ingredient Quantity in 100 g (%)
Green banana flour 28.50
Egg whites 8.54
Refined sugar 22.79
Egg yolk 15.87
Baking powder 1.71
Skimmed milk 14.24
Soybean oil 8.54
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Centesimal composition and physical analysis

The analyzes of centesimal composition were carried out in the Laboratory of Bromatology of the Faculty of Nutrition of the Federal University of Pelotas. Muffins were evaluated for moisture content, ashes, fiber, lipids, and proteins according to the standards of the AOAC (1995). The determination of the carbohydrate content was performed by difference. The total energy value (VET in kcal/100 g) was obtained through the Eq. 1.

VET=C×4+A×4+B×9 1

where: C: carbohydrates; A: total protein; B: lipids.

The physical analyses were carried out in the Laboratory of Bromatology of the Faculty of Nutrition of the Federal University of Pelotas. The gluten-free muffinswere evaluated for mass yield and weight loss during baking. The mass yield was determined by the ratio of the weight of the dough cooked by the weights of the raw dough. The following formula evaluated the weight loss during baking (Eq. 2):

Weight=Weightofrawpasta-WeightofcookedpastaWeightofrawpasta×100 2

To verify the structure of the green banana flour muffins, they were subjected to microfilming in a conventional camera.

Antioxidant activity

Antioxidant activity was performed against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydroxyl radicals by spectrophotometric assay according to the methods proposed by Brand-Wiliams et al. (1995) and Vinholes et al. (2011) respectively, with modifications. For the analysis an ethanolic extract of gluten-free muffins at a concentration of 600 mg/mL was prepared. Results were expressed as percentages of inhibition.

Protein digestibility

For the analysis of protein digestibility of muffins, the total protein content was taken into account. Based on this, approximately 3 g of cupcakes were weighed and homogenized with 50 mL of distilled water. Then they were accommodated in a heating bath at 37 °C under agitation, and their pH was adjusted to 8. Then 5 mL of pancreatin and pepsin enzyme solutionwasadded and the pH measured in 15 s and after that, every 1 min, during10 minutes, using an Analion brand pH meter. Enzymatic digestion was characterized by the declineof pH 10 min after addition of the enzymatic solution and adjustment of the equation describing the decline of pH versus time (Hsu 1977). The following formula evaluates the percentage of digestibility (Eq. 3):

Digestibility%=210.46-18.103x 3

where: x = pH value after 10 min.

Sensory analysis

The sensorial analysis of the muffins was carried out at Campus Capão do Leão and Campus Anglo, both of the Federal University of Pelotas through interviews performed with 100 untrained consumers composed of students, teachers, and employees of the same Institution. Each rater received individually a 20 g serving of muffin. The evaluators received a informed consent term and sensorial evaluation sheet composed by an acceptance test through a hedonic scale of 9 points, where 1 = I disliked it were very much and 9 = I liked it very much.The intention to buy test was composed of a 5-point scale, in ascending order: 1 = certainly would not buy and 5 = certainly buy. The Acceptability Index (AI) was evaluated through the recommendation of Gularte (2009), using the formula AI (%) = A × 100 / B, with A: average grade obtained for the sample and B: maximum grade given for the sample. A product with an AI ≥ 70% is considered accepted.The work was submitted tothe research ethics committee, and the identity of the participants was preserved in its entirety.

Results and discussion

Proximal centesimal composition

Table 2 shows the centesimal composition and the caloric value of the gluten-free muffins. The moisture content found in the muffins with this formulation is approximately 10%, this value is higher when compared to wheat flour (Santos and Boêno 2016),this difference can be correlated with the absorption of water during the preparation of the mass and the loss of water during the cooking process. The moisture has some mechanical and qualitative implications in the product, being related to the gelatinization of the starch in the mass during the baking process and interfering in the crispness. As for ash content, the amount found in this formulation was similar to cupcakes made with 7% banana peel flour (2.5%) (Carvalho et al. 2012) and higher than cookies made with green banana flour (1.59 ± 0.03%) (Fasolin et al. 2007).

Table 2.

Proximal centesimal composition in 100 g of green banana flour muffins

Parameters Mean ± SD
Moisture (%) 26.7 ± 0.2
Ashes (%) 2.4 ± 0.0
Lipids(%) 15.4 ± 0.2
Proteins (%) 10.3 ± 0.1
Fibers (%) 1.2 ± 0.1
Carbohydrates (%) 44.0 ± 0.0
Total caloric value (kcal/100 g) 261.2 ± 0.0
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Commercial gluten-free mixes usually contain only carbohydrates, which can significantly limit the amount of protein in the diet. Thus, the inferior quality of gluten-free products may be related to the difficulty in replacing gluten, as well as the low nutritional value of these products.The number of proteins found in this study was higher than those found by Fasolin et al. (2007), who verified 6.77% in cookies made with green banana flour and lower lipid content (19.11%). In green banana flour, the amount of carbohydrates is 79.89% in 100 g, almost double found in muffins (44%). Starch is the most available carbohydrate since it has not yet been converted to sugars. The consumption of products made from green banana flour has advantages when compared to other gluten-free flours, such as rice and corn flours, as they contain resistant starch instead of digestible starch. Resistant starch is not digested in the small intestine, reaching the colon intact where it undergoes bacterial fermentation, thus helping with gastric motility, reducing the risks of chronic non-communicable diseases such as obesity, diabetes, some types of cancers of the gastrointestinal tract and cardiovascular diseases (Ramos et al. 2009; Tribess et al.2009).

Physical analysis

The microfilm structure of green banana muffins (Fig. 1) demonstrates that they are aerated with formation of air bubbles that promote softness. One of the major problems of the gluten-free products available its the sensory characteristics, where residual flavors are observed and mainly changes in the growth of bread and cakes. Many gluten-free products are developed based on rice flour, however, the absence of gluten in this cereal reduces the retention of carbon dioxide, which directly affects the quality of the products, as it does not promote good expansion and elasticity (Sae-Eaw et al. 2007). Some articles also show that the replacement of wheat flour with starches, such as corn, changes the cake structure by promoting less volume (Wilderjans et al. 2008; Román et al., 2019). As can be seen in Fig. 1, our green banana flour muffins promoted greater retention of carbon dioxide, promoting the formation of the “bubbles” characteristic of the expansion of cakes and bread, unlike other gluten-free matrices.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Microfilmed structure of green banana flour muffin

The muffins presented yield of 88.3% and percentage of weight loss in the supply of 11.7%. The cost of producing a 100 g green banana flour muffin was about U$ 0.25. The percentage of mass yield was lower than that found by Barros et al. (2018) in wheat flour muffins, this suggests that green banana flour has a higherwater retention capacity in the muffins being maintained during the delivery, due probably to the interaction of proteins, starch and especially of the fibers. Bitencourt et al. (2014) evaluated the percentage of weight loss during the cooking of biscuits prepared with white, red, carioca, and black bean flour. The authors identified a loss rate of 70% for biscuits made with white beans, similar to the results obtained with green banana flour muffins. However, this rate is higher when compared to cookies prepared with 70% red bean, carioca, and black bean flour.

Antioxidant activity

Antioxidants play an essential role in the prevention of diseases related to oxidative stress. Goñi et al. (2009) reported that polyphenols associated with polysaccharides and proteins in the cell wall are essential constituents of dietary fiber. The antioxidant activity of the muffins was 54.9% for the DPPH radical and 25% for the hydroxyl radical. In green banana flour, antioxidant activity is 65.58%, indicating a not very representative decrease in muffins (Haslinda et al. 2009). Wang et al. (2012) reported that the addition of 50% green banana flour improved the nutritional value, especially fiber, minerals, polyphenols, and the antioxidant capacity of the snacks. The reduction of the antioxidant activity during the heating of the muffins may be related to the degradation of essential compounds such as phenolics and anthocyanins (Seeram et al. 2001; Rupasinghe et al. 2008; Pawłowska et al. 2018). Thus, studies have shown that not only the reduction in composition but the formation of the by products of the degradation of flavonoids, flavones, and anthocyanins, maybe causing a decrease in antioxidant activity (Seeram et al. 2001). However, it is worth mentioning that this antioxidant activity of banana flour products is similar in comparison to the products of traditional flours (wheat) with the presence of gluten (Wang et al. 2012; Bamigbola et al. 2016). Banana flour not only ensures good prevention against free radicals but can also improve nutritional value by up to 30%, in particular protein, dietary fiber, and mineral contents (Bamigbola et al. 2016).

Protein digestibility

Digestibility is the measure of the percentage of proteins that are hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes to amino acids and absorbed by the body in the form of amino acids or any other nitrogen compounds. Protein digestibility is a nutritional parameter that evaluates the use of a protein source; the higher this value, the more utilized amino acids will be in the body. Proteins of animal origin generally have a high digestibility, above 95%, and those of vegetal origin, below 80%. In the green banana flour muffins, the protein digestibility was 80.1%, that is, the protein content is highly utilized in the body. According to Palavecino et al. (2019), this high protein digestibility may be related to the high activity of endogenous amylolytic enzymes from the flour. And this is an important attribute to increase the nutritional quality of people with gluten intolerance.

Sensorial analysis

Evaluators measure overall acceptability comprised 43% of men and 57% of women, and the mean age was 24.5 years old. To determinate the overall hedonic score was considered grades of 7 or higher, and the results presented that 83% of reviewers "liked it moderately", "liked" or "liked it a lot" of the green banana flour muffin, 84% to odor, 75% to texture and 85% to flavor.The acceptability index of the muffins prepared with green banana flour was 84.5% (Fig. 2), so we can say that the product was accepted. The substitution of wheat flour for alternative flour does directly affect the nutritional and sensory characteristics of the products, these changes being important since they will define the possibility of the application of the new product developed in an industrial scale.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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.Frequency of the hedonic scale of green banana flour muffins

The results overall acceptability of the color, odor, and flavor of the muffins of the present study were similar to the results found by Bitencourt et al. (2014) in cakes with 7.5% added pumpkin seed flour, but were superior to the results of the addition of 15 and 30% of the unconventional flour. When comparing the texture of the muffins with that of the cakes of pumpkin seed, it is observed that those with 7.5 and 15% of addition present a higher result than the present study, whereas the addition of 30% of presented similar results. The results of the present study were lower than those found by Silva and Silva (2012) in cakes developed with seeds and in nature pumpkin bark, which presented 98% of acceptability for color and 92% for smell while cakes with pumpkin seed flour showed an overall acceptability by 90% for color, 94% for smell, 98% for texture and 96% for flavor.

The acceptability index of the elaborated muffins was 84.5%. Therefore, we can say that the development of these muffins is a viable food alternative for people with celiac disease. A study that evaluated sensorially cookies with green banana flour found that 80.01% of consumers reported moderately enjoying the cookie with 10% green banana flour, 63% for a cookie with 20% and 46.67% for with 30% of green banana flour (Barros et al. 2018). The study by Bitencourt et al. (2014) evaluated the acceptance rate of cakes enriched with pumpkin seed flour and observed that it decreased as an increase in flour concentration occurred. Finally, Carvalho et al. (2012) evaluated the acceptability of cupcakes with the addition of banana peel flour and observed that the addition of up to 7% of the alternative flour has good acceptability. Similar results were also found in a study that aimed to develop gluten-free bread for celiac disease patients, formulation 1 contained potato and had 79.8% acceptability, and formulation 2 with cassava obtained 82.8% (Andrade et al. 2011). It is observed that the added quantities of alternative flours in the studies present in the literature are quite lower, with a maximum of 30% replacement of conventional flours, while our study completely replaced wheat flour and obtained high acceptability values for all evaluated parameters (Fig. 2). This demonstrates that green banana flour muffins are an excellent alternative for people with celiac disease.

When questioned about the green banana muffin's purchase intent, 75% of the evaluators would certainly or probably buy, and only 3% probably or certainly would not buy (Fig. 3). The purchase intention of the green banana flour muffins was similar to that found by Cunha et al. (2014), where 75% of the evaluators "would probably" or "would certainly" buy muffins with substitution of 16.67% of the wheat flour for chestnut meal and the replacement of 50% of the starch with banana flour, also for cakes with change of 33.34% of the wheat flour per chestnut flour, and 100% of the starch per banana flour. The results of the purchase intention were also higher than that found by Guimarães et al. (2010) in cakes made with the addition of watermelon bramble flour, where 64% "would" buy the cake with 7% and 62% with 30% of flour substitution.It was also superior to found by Ozores et al. (2015) in cakes with substitution of wheat flour for passion fruit flour, where the intention to buy referring to "certainly" and "probably would" have corresponded to 74.4% for cakes plus 5% of the alternative flour, 75.1% for cakes with 10% addition and 44.9% for cakes with 20% of substitution. Similar results were also found by Bitencourt et al. (2014) in a study that aimed to develop cakes with 78% pumpkin co-products for those made with pumpkin seed meal. However, the results showed that the muffins of the present study had a higher purchase intention when compared to the cakes formulated with seeds and unripe pumpkin bark that presented intention of 52%. Thus, green banana flour muffins have similar sensory characteristics to other studies aimed at replacing flours with gluten-free flours. However, our research has as a differential the total exemption of traditional flours, thus being a gluten-free product which has nutritional and sensory characteristics similar to conventional products.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Frequency of Intention to purchase green banana flour muffins

Conclusion

Muffins made with green banana flour are a viable alternative to gluten-free healthy food because they have good sensory acceptability, high protein digestibility, and considerable antioxidant potential, beyond low manufacturing cost compared to other gluten-free products.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

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