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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Mar 1.
Published in final edited form as: Soc Sci Med. 2021 Feb 6;272:113746. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113746

Table 4.

Hypothesis 3: Relationships between Accountability Pressure, Parental Intervention in School, and Elementary School Diagnoses of ADHD1 (Displaying Odds Ratios from Three Level Mixed Effects Logit Regression)

(1)
Child Lives in a State with Consequential Accountability in Kindergarten 1.51**
(0.21)
Parental Intervention in School in Kindergarten (std.) 0.99
(0.09)
Parental Intervention in School in Kindergarten (std.) * Accountability 1.31*
(0.14)
Child Reading Achievement Score in Kindergarten (std.) 1.06
(0.08)
Child Math Achievement Score in Kindergarten (std.) 0.71***
(0.06)
Child Inattentive Behaviors Score in First Grade/Wave Prior to Diagnosis (Teacher) 1.97***
(0.14)
Child Hyperactivity Behaviors Score in First Grade/Wave Prior to Diagnosis (Teacher) 1.38***
(0.10)
Child Oppositional Defiant or Conduct Disorder Behaviors Score in First Grade/Wave Prior to Diagnosis (Teacher) 1.18+
(0.11)
Child Internalizing Problems Score in First Grade/Wave Prior to Diagnosis (Teacher) 0.98
(0.07)
Child Inattentive Behaviors Score in First Grade/Wave Prior to Diagnosis (Parent) 1.77***
(0.13)
Child Hyperactivity Behaviors Score in First Grade/Wave Prior to Diagnosis (Parent) 1.99***
(0.14)
Child Oppositional Defiant or Conduct Disorder Behaviors Score in First Grade/Wave Prior to Diagnosis (Parent) 1.35***
(0.12)
Middle-Class Family 1.30*
(0.17)
Upper-Class Family 1.40*
(0.24)
Black 0.29***
(0.05)
Hispanic 0.34***
(0.06)
Other Race/Ethnicity 0.44***
(0.08)
Random-Effects Parameters
Level 3, state: σ2(constantstate) 0.00
(0.00)
Level 2, school: σ2(constantschool) 0.18
(0.10)
N 9520

Displaying odds ratios for the fixed component of the model and variance estimates for constants in the random-effects for school (level 2) and state (level 3); standard errors in parentheses.

*

p<0.05

**

p<0.01

***

p<0.001.

Model controls for child pre-diagnosis ADHD-related behavioral problems, pre-diagnosis math and reading scores, the other parenting measures, family and demographic characteristics, classroom and early care context, and state and region characteristics (see Table 1).

1

Results remain comparable when diagnosis is restricted to 3rd-5th grades, when accountability testing occurs.

Source: Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort of 1998–99.