Table 3.
Proportion and probability of depression, anxiety and psychological distress in study participants (N = 1978)
| Demographic characteristics | Depression (PHQ-2) | Anxiety (GAD-2) | Moderate/severe psychological distress (PHQ-4) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Prevalence, N (%) | AOR (95% CI) | Prevalence, N (%) | AOR (95% CI) | Prevalence, N (%) | AOR (95% CI) | |
| Sex | ||||||
| Female | 333 (32) | Ref | 419 (42) | 1.27 (1.04–1.56)* | 355 (35)* | Ref |
| Male | 445 (45)* | 1.42 (1.15–1.74)* | 408 (42) | Ref | 413 (43) | 1.08 (0.88–1.33) |
| Race | ||||||
| White | 570 (39) | Ref | 622 (43)* | Ref | 572 (39) | Ref |
| Black | 96 (44) | 1.02 (0.72–1.31) | 100 (46) | 0.89 (0.65–1.21) | 97 (45) | 0.97 (0.72–1.33) |
| Asian | 68 (35) | 0.86 (0.63–1.26) | 63 (33) | 0.63 (0.45–0.89)* | 60 (31) | 0.70 (0.49–0.99)* |
| Multiracial | 19 (37) | 0.72 (0.39–1.45) | 16 (35) | 0.53 (0.27–1.03) | 16 (35) | 0.66 (0.34–1.30) |
| Other | 27 (42) | 0.63 (0.36–1.17) | 26 (40) | 0.45 (0.27–1.00) | 23 (35) | 0.38 (0.21–0.72)* |
| Ethnicity | ||||||
| Non-Hispanic | 522 (33)* | Ref | 569 (36)* | Ref | 516 (32) | Ref |
| Hispanic | 256 (68) | 2.52 (1.92–3.33)* | 258 (68) | 2.92 (2.21–3.85)* | 252 (67)* | 2.77 (2.10–3.65)* |
| Marital status | ||||||
| Single/ never married | 245 (38)* | Ref | 246 (38)* | Ref | 236(36)* | Ref |
| Married | 476 (43) | 1.14 (0.83–1.54) | 511 (46) | 1.07 (0.80–1.44) | 475 (43) | 1.04 (0.78–1.42) |
| Engaged/living with a partner | 38 (38) | 1.03 (0.65–0.163) | 48 (48) | 1.40 (0.89–2.18) | 40 (40) | 1.10 (0.69–1.71) |
| Divorced/separated/widow | 19 (15) | 0.57 (0.33–1.04) | 22 (18) | 0.43 (0.24–0.74)* | 17 (14) | 0.39 (0.22–0.72)* |
| Children at home | ||||||
| No | 343 (33)* | Ref | 360 (35)* | Ref | 335(32)* | Ref |
| Yes | 435 (47) | 1.42 (1.15–1.78)* | 467 (50) | 1.59 (1.28–1.97)* | 433 (47) | 1.46 (1.17–1.82)* |
| Education | ||||||
| ≤High school | 38 (34)* | Ref | 42 (38)* | Ref | 36 (32)* | Ref |
| Some college education | 117 (35) | 1.21 (0.74–1.97) | 102 (31) | 0.76 (0.47–1.23) | 105 (32) | 1.07 (0.66–1.76) |
| Bachelor’s degree | 431 (45) | 1.46 (0.90–2.30) | 457 (48) | 1.35 (0.87–2.09) | 424 (44) | 1.47 (0.93–2.31) |
| ≥Master’s degree | 192 (33) | 1.25 (0.77–2.03) | 226 (39) | 1.27 (0.80–2.03) | 203 (35) | 1.41 (0.86–2.27) |
| Current employment status | ||||||
| Full time | 568 (42)* | Ref | 591 (44)* | Ref | 563 (42)* | Ref |
| Part time | 116 (37) | 0.85 (0.63–1.14) | 127 (41) | 0.92 (0.70–1.20) | 118 (38) | 0.88 (0.66–1.17) |
| Not employed | 94 (30) | 1.11 (0.81–1.49) | 109 (35) | 1.17 (0.87–1.56) | 87 (28) | 0.93 (0.69–1.27) |
| Healthcare worker | ||||||
| No | 462 (31)* | Ref | 506 (34)* | Ref | 451 (31)* | Ref |
| Yes | 316 (62) | 2.40 (1.88–3.06)* | 321 (63) | 2.02( 1.59–2.56)* | 317 (62) | 2.39 (1.88–3.06)* |
| Annual household income | ||||||
| ≥60 000 | 318 (32)* | Ref | 353 (36)* | Ref | 316 (32)* | Ref |
| <60 000 | 460 (46) | 1.43 (1.15–1.76)* | 474 (48) | 1.41 (1.14–1.73)* | 452 (45) | 1.51 (1.22–1.87)* |
| Area of residence | ||||||
| Rural | 198 (47)* | 1.54 (1.16–2.04)* | 197 (47)* | 1.36 (1.04–1.79)* | 193 (46)* | 1.49 (1.12–1.97)* |
| Urban | 387 (47) | 1.81 (1.43–2.29) | 412 (50) | 1.86 (1.48–2.34) | 383 (47) | 1.83 (1.45–2.32) |
| Suburban | 193 (26) | Ref | 218 (30) | Ref | 192(26) | Ref |
| Region in USA | ||||||
| Midwest | 209 (32)* | 0.78 (0.54–1.08) | 242 (36) | 0.81 (0.59–1.12) | 212 (32)* | 0.70 (0.51–0.99) |
| South | 222 (38) | 0.77 (0.53–1.07) | 229 (39) | 0.75 (0.54–1.04) | 214 (36) | 0.68 (0.49–.0.94) |
| West | 237 (51) | 1.21 (0.86–1.70) | 244 (53) | 1.24 (0.89–1.75) | 232 (50) | 1.11 (0.78–1.55) |
| Northeast | 101 (40) | Ref | 105 (42)* | Ref | 103(41) | Ref |
| Age group | ||||||
| 18–25 years | 176 (47)* | 3.83 (2.30–6.39)* | 175 (47)* | 2.89 (1.81–4.62)* | 167 (44)* | 3.16 (1.91–5.22)* |
| 26–40 years | 396 (45) | 3.00 (1.87–4.82) | 406 (46) | 2.45 (1.59–3.76) | 387 (44) | 2.89 (1.69–4.28) |
| 41–60 years | 177 (33) | 1.86 (1.15–3.01) | 207 (38) | 1.70 (1.10–2.63) | 184 (34) | 1.82 (1.13–2.91) |
| ≥61 years | 29 (16) | Ref | 39 (21) | Ref | 30(16) | Ref |
N (%) indicates the frequency and percentages. AOR indicates adjusted odds ratios computed by adjusting for all the variables in the table with 95% confidence intervals. PHQ-2, GAD-2 and PHQ-4 indicate the levels of severe depression, severe anxiety and moderate-to-severe psychological distress.
* P-values < 0.05.