Table 1. Nanoparticle-based tools against respiratory viruses.
| Types of substances used for fabrication | Types of virus | Antigen/epitope | Adjuvant | Mean diameter (nm) | Achievements | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Polymeric-based nanostructured materials | ||||||
| Polyanhydride | RSV | G and F glycoproteins | – | 200–800 | Vaccinated mice were largely protected against virus replication in the lungs | [69,116] |
| HPMA/NIPAM† | RSV | F protein | TLR-7/8 agonist | 12–25 | Nanoparticles displayed appropriate antigenicity and elicited high titers of prefusion-specific, TH1 isotype anti-RSV F antibodies following vaccination | [117,118] |
| Chitosan | IF(H1N1) | Antigen M2e | Heat shock protein 70°C | 200–250 | Nanoparticles improved pharmacokinetic profile and enhanced vaccine immunogenicity for inducing antibodies and T cell immunity | [119] |
| Swine IF (H1N2) | Killed Swine IF | – | 571.7 | Intranasal immunization of mice with fabricated nanoparticles directed immune response to a more effective quality profile | [120] | |
| IF(H1N1) | HA-Split | – | 300–350 | Nanovaccine elicited strong cross-reactive mucosal IgA and cellular immune responses in the respiratory tract that resulted in a reduced lung virus titers and nasal viral shedding | [121] | |
| IF(H1N1) | Antigen of H1N1 | – | 140 | Nanovaccine reduced morbidity and conferred 100% protective rate to the vaccinated mice against lethal IF virus | [122] | |
| IF(H1N1) | Hemagglutinin | – | 100–200 | After three nasal immunizations, the developed nanovaccine induced significantly high levels of serum IgG and mucosal sIgA | [123] | |
| PLGA‡ | Swine IF (H1N2) | Inactivated H1N2 virus | – | 200–300 | Subcutaneous immunization with fabricated vaccine increased the protective immune responses against IF virus in mice | [124] |
| BPI3V | BPI3V Proteins | – | 225.4 | Nanovaccine reduced lung pathology and viral antigenic load in the lung sections with clearance of infectious challenge virus in most of the vaccinated pig lung airways | [125] | |
| Metal nanoparticles | ||||||
| AU | IF | Antigen M2e | CpG | 12 | Intranasal vaccination of mice with M2e–AuNP conjugates induced M2e-specific IgG serum antibodies and mice vaccinated with soluble CpG as adjuvant in addition to M2e-AuNP were fully protected | [126] |
| Self-assembly proteins and peptide-based nanoparticles | ||||||
| Q11 peptide§ | IF(H1N1) | Antigen M2e | – | 15–100 | Vaccination with developed nanoparticles did not only protect mice against homologous challenge of IF PR8 H1N1 virus, but also provide protection against heterologous challenge of highly pathogenic avian IF H7N9 virus | [127] |
| Q11, PAQ11¶ and SIINFEKLQ11# | IF(H1N1) | CD8+ epitope | – | – | Intranasally delivered peptide nanofibers were found to be more immunogenic incomparision to subcutaneous route, thereby it produced greater CD8+ T cell responses in lung-draining lymph nodes, greater numbers of tissue resident T cells and a more rapid tissue resident memory response to IF infection | [128] |
| N of RSV | IF(H1N1) | Antigen M2e | Montanide™ Gel01 | 15 | Intranasal vaccination of nanoparticles induces robust immune responses, including high titers of sera M2e-specific IgG antibodies, T-cell immune responses and mucosal secretory-IgA antibodies in mice | [129] |
| IF(H1N1) | Antigen M2e | – | 10–100 | Vaccinated mice presented a reduced viral load and minor weight loss and all survived upon challenge with IF virus | [130] | |
| RSV | FsII | Montanide™ Gel01 | – | Intranasal N-FsII immunization elicited anti-F antibodies in mice that were non-neutralizing in vitro and it provided better protection against virus replication especially in the upper airways | [70] | |
| Other nanoparticles | ||||||
| VLP | RSV | M1 protein of IF and RSV-F or -G | – | 40–100 | Intramuscular VLPs vaccination reduced lung viral load and elicited IgG2a dominant RSV-specific IgG antibody responses against RSV-A2 viruses in both serum and lung extract | [131] |
| IF (H1N1, H3N2, H5N1) | Antigen M2e F protein et G | – | 60–80 | Mice vaccinated intranasally with VLPs showed viral-specific antibody responses against RSV as well as VLPs conferred enhanced protection against live RSV challenges | [132] | |
| IF(H1N1) | Hemagglutinin | – | 80–120 | Intranasal vaccination of VLP induced broad cross-protection by M2-specific humoral and cellular immune responses | [73] | |
| Liposome | IF(H1N1) | M2, HA, NP | MPL and trehalose 6,6 dimycolate | 10–1000 | Nanoparticles elicited virus-specific memory T-cell responses but not neutralizing antibodies | [133] |
†
N-(2-hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide/N-isopropylacrylamide.
‡
poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid).
§
fibrilizing peptide (Ac-QQKFQFQFEQQ-Am).
¶
(H2N-SSLENFRAYV-SGSG-QQKFQFQFEQQ-Am).
#
(H2N-SIINFEKL-SGSG-QQKFQFQFEQQ-Am).
AuNP: Gold nanoparticle; RSV: Respiratory syncytial virus; TLR: Toll-like receptor; VLP: Viral-like particle.