Table 3.
Assessing individual-level effect modification of the association between each 10 μg/m–3 increase in ambient PM2.5 exposures, hemoglobin, and anemia by relevant covariates for 98,557 children under five or younger participating in the NFHS-4.
| Variabled | Hb (g/dL) (95% CI) | P value for interaction | Odds ratio of anemia (95% CI) | P value for interaction |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | ||||
| Male (reference) | –0.05 (–0.06, –0.03) | 1.00 | ||
| Female | 0.02 (–0.05, 0.09) | 0.47 | 1.03 (0.93, 1.15) | 0.57 |
| DDS | ||||
| 0 (reference) | –0.04 (–0.06, –0.02) | 1.00 | ||
| 1 | –0.04 (–0.13, 0.05) | 0.13 | 1.11 (0.96, 1.28) | 0.995 |
| 2 | –0.07 (–0.18, 0.03) | 0.15 | 1.12 (0.95, 1.32) | 0.44 |
| 3 | –0.05 (–0.15, 0.05) | 0.07 | 1.10 (0.95, 1.29) | 0.14 |
| 4 | –0.07 (–0.19, 0.05) | 0.38 | 1.22 (1.01, 1.46) | 0.71 |
| 5 | –0.04 (–0.19, 0.11) | 0.60 | 1.07 (0.85, 1.35) | 0.63 |
| 6 | –0.05 (–0.20, 0.10) | 0.67 | 1.08 (0.86, 1.36) | 0.74 |
| Secondhand smoke | ||||
| No (reference) | –0.04 (–0.06, –0.02) | 1.00 | ||
| Yes | –0.01 (–0.08, 0.07) | 0.002 | 1.04 (0.93, 1.17) | 0.02 |
| Wealth Index | ||||
| Poorest (reference) | –0.04 (–0.05, –0.02) | 1.00 | ||
| Poorer | 0.08 (–0.02, 0.18) | 0.29 | 0.89 (0.76, 1.04) | 0.34 |
| Middle | 0.16 (0.05, 0.26) | 0.35 | 0.86 (0.73, 1.02) | 0.56 |
| Richer | 0.38 (0.27, 0.50) | <0.001 | 0.64 (0.53, 0.76) | 0.01 |
| Richest | 0.47 (0.34, 0.60) | 0.02 | 0.58 (0.47, 0.70) | 0.35 |
| Residence type | ||||
| Rural (Reference) | –0.04 (–0.06, –0.03) | 1.00 | ||
| Urban | –0.02 (–0.10, 0.07) | < 0.001 | 1.01 (0.89, 1.15) | 0.001 |
| Maternal anemia | ||||
| No (reference) | –0.05 (–0.06, –0.03) | 1.00 | ||
| Yes | –0.41 (–0.48, –0.34) | 0.39 | 1.77 (1.59, 1.97) | 0.70 |
| BMIc | ||||
| –2 SD | 0.02 (0.07, –0.03) | 1.02 (0.96, 1.07) | ||
| Median | –0.034 (–0.04, –0.031) | 0.44 | 1.066 (1.060, 1.073) | 0.73 |
| +2 SD | –0.08 (–0.14, –0.03) | 1.12 (1.05, 1.20) |
aModels were adjusted for sex, DDS, residence type (urban vs. rural), wealth index, maternal anemia status, (household) cooking fuel type, BMI z-score, and secondhand smoke exposure; district-level random effects.
bResults presented for a 10 μg m–3 increase in ambient PM2.5 exposure and holding all other covariates constant.
cBMI modeled as a continuous variable; cutoffs presented are for underweight/thin, median z-score, and overweight.
dStratified effect estimates presented holding all other model covariates constant.
BMI, body mass index; DDS, diet diversity score.