Table 4.
Relationship Between EQ-5D Utility Score and Select Respondent Characteristics, Estimated by OLS Regression Following Lasso
| Predictor | Estimate* | Lower 97.5% CI* | Upper 97.5% CI* | Std. error* | E-value | E-value 95% CL |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (Intercept) | 0.851 | 0.709 | 0.975 | 0.059 | 66.702 | 41.220 |
| Gender, male | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) |
| Gender, female | 0.002 | −0.018 | 0.021 | 0.009 | 1.100 | 1.000 |
| Gender, prefer not to say | −0.082 | −0.186 | 0.030 | 0.048 | 2.155 | 1.000 |
| Gender, other | −0.190 | −0.445 | 0.083 | 0.118 | 3.808 | 1.000 |
| Age group, 18–24 | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) |
| Age group, 25–34 | 0.060 | 0.015 | 0.108 | 0.021 | 1.881 | 1.378 |
| Age group, 35–44 | 0.071 | 0.025 | 0.120 | 0.021 | 2.017 | 1.517 |
| Age group, 45–54 | 0.055 | 0.004 | 0.109 | 0.023 | 1.821 | 1.252 |
| Age group, 55–64 | 0.066 | 0.019 | 0.117 | 0.022 | 1.955 | 1.430 |
| Age group, ≥65 | 0.092 | 0.034 | 0.147 | 0.025 | 2.284 | 1.677 |
| Race, White | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) |
| Race, American Indian or Alaska Native | 0.099 | 0.013 | 0.190 | 0.040 | 2.377 | 1.402 |
| Race, Asian | 0.025 | −0.013 | 0.063 | 0.017 | 1.456 | 1.000 |
| Race, Black or African American | −0.016 | −0.060 | 0.026 | 0.019 | 1.338 | 1.000 |
| Race, multiple-race | −0.030 | −0.081 | 0.027 | 0.024 | 1.518 | 1.000 |
| Race, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander | −0.157 | −0.520 | 0.217 | 0.164 | 3.234 | 1.000 |
| Race, other | 0.049 | −0.042 | 0.132 | 0.039 | 1.748 | 1.000 |
| Race, prefer not to say | 0.068 | −0.026 | 0.165 | 0.042 | 1.980 | 1.000 |
| Hispanic ethnicity, no | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) |
| Hispanic ethnicity, prefer not to say | 0.013 | −0.064 | 0.092 | 0.035 | 1.296 | 1.000 |
| Hispanic ethnicity, yes | −0.043 | −0.081 | 0.001 | 0.018 | 1.676 | 1.216 |
| Marital status, single | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) |
| Marital status, divorced | −0.008 | −0.045 | 0.030 | 0.017 | 1.220 | 1.000 |
| Marital status, married | −0.044 | −0.072 | −0.017 | 0.012 | 1.688 | 1.399 |
| Marital status, prefer not to say | 0.018 | −0.097 | 0.117 | 0.048 | 1.365 | 1.000 |
| Marital status, separated | −0.020 | −0.145 | 0.098 | 0.054 | 1.392 | 1.000 |
| Marital status, widowed | 0.001 | −0.057 | 0.062 | 0.026 | 1.069 | 1.000 |
| Annual income, less than $20,000 | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) |
| Annual income, $20,000 to $34,999 | 0.021 | −0.020 | 0.064 | 0.019 | 1.405 | 1.000 |
| Annual income, $35,000 to $49,999 | 0.024 | −0.017 | 0.066 | 0.018 | 1.443 | 1.000 |
| Annual income, $50,000 to $74,999 | 0.065 | 0.031 | 0.105 | 0.017 | 1.943 | 1.540 |
| Annual income, $75,000 to $99,999 | 0.058 | 0.017 | 0.102 | 0.019 | 1.857 | 1.403 |
| Annual income, $100,000 to $149,999 | 0.072 | 0.033 | 0.115 | 0.018 | 2.029 | 1.601 |
| Annual income, over $150,000 | 0.115 | 0.076 | 0.162 | 0.019 | 2.597 | 2.102 |
| Education, less than high school degree | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) | (Reference) |
| Education, high school degree or equivalent (e.g., GED) | 0.042 | −0.082 | 0.180 | 0.058 | 1.664 | 1.000 |
| Education, some college but no degree | 0.026 | −0.097 | 0.165 | 0.058 | 1.469 | 1.000 |
| Education, associate degree | 0.041 | −0.088 | 0.175 | 0.059 | 1.652 | 1.000 |
| Education, bachelor degree | 0.014 | −0.108 | 0.149 | 0.057 | 1.311 | 1.000 |
| Education, graduate degree | 0.024 | −0.098 | 0.160 | 0.058 | 1.443 | 1.000 |
| Live alone | −0.035 | −0.062 | −0.007 | 0.012 | 1.579 | 1.275 |
| Experienced COVID-19-like symptoms not serious enough to require hospitalization | −0.023 | −0.055 | 0.013 | 0.015 | 1.431 | 1.000 |
| Has a family member diagnosed with COVID-19 | −0.080 | −0.145 | −0.023 | 0.027 | 2.130 | 1.483 |
| Knows someone with a COVID-19 diagnosis | −0.005 | −0.033 | 0.020 | 0.012 | 1.167 | 1.000 |
| Fear of COVID-19’s impact on health (1–10 scale) | −0.010 | −0.013 | −0.006 | 0.002 | 1.252 | 1.187 |
| Fear of COVID-19’s impact on finances (1–10 scale) | −0.002 | −0.005 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 1.100 | 1.000 |
| Arthritis | −0.115 | −0.151 | −0.077 | 0.017 | 2.597 | 2.152 |
| Diabetes | −0.081 | −0.126 | −0.036 | 0.020 | 2.142 | 1.663 |
| Depression | −0.122 | −0.147 | −0.097 | 0.011 | 2.696 | 2.397 |
| Fear of COVID-19’s impact on health (1–10 scale) * stroke | −0.034 | −0.062 | −0.008 | 0.012 | 1.567 | 1.260 |
| BMI category, underweight * California | −0.263 | −0.415 | −0.109 | 0.068 | 5.375 | 2.813 |
Abbreviations: OLS ordinary least squares, CI confidence interval, CL confidence limit, BMI body mass index, COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019
*The coefficients given by this (post-lasso) OLS regression were bootstrapped to estimate standard errors, computed as the standard deviation of the bootstrap replicates. The standard errors were then used to construct Bonferroni-corrected normal-theory confidence intervals for the regression coefficients. In this table, we report the median bootstrap estimates as the model point estimates alongside the normal-theory bootstrap intervals