Table 3.
Characteristics at the End of Follow Up by GD Status and Subsequent Glucose Tolerance Groups After Pregnancy (2000–2011).
| End of Follow Up Characteristics* | No GD (N=994) | GD (N=139) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Glucose Tolerance After Pregnancy | Glucose Tolerance After Pregnancy | |||||||
| Mean (SD) † or N (%) | Normoglycemia | Prediabetes | Incident Diabetes | p-value | Normoglycemia | Prediabetes | Incident Diabetes | p-value |
| (N=557) | (N=348) | (N=89) | (N=53) | (N=50) | (N=36) | |||
| Age, years | 47.0 (4.9) | 48.4 (4.3) | 48.7 (4.1) | <.001 | 46.5 (6.0) | 47.7 (5.1) | 48.2 (4.9) | 0.31 |
| Weight status, n (%) | <.001 | <.001 | ||||||
| Normal (BMI <25) | 226 (41) | 82 (24) | 6 (7) | 18 (34) | 13 (26) | 4 (11) | ||
| Overweight (BMI: 25–29.9) | 161 (29) | 83 (24) | 17 (19) | 22 (42) | 11 (22) | 4 (11) | ||
| Obese (BMI ≥30) | 170 (31) | 183 (53) | 66 (74) | 13 (25) | 26 (52) | 28 (78) | ||
| BMI, kg/m2 | 27.6 (6.3) | 31.4 (7.6) | 36.1 (8.4) | <.001 | 28.0 (5.9) | 31.1 (7.4) | 35.0 (7.8) | <.001 |
| Waist circumference, cm | 83.6 (13.0) | 92.7 (15.3) | 103.7 (17.8) | <.001 | 85.2 (12.5) | 91.4 (15.5) | 102.2 (17.6) | <.001 |
| Systolic BP, mm Hg | 113 (16) | 118 (16) | 123 (21) | <.001 | 121 (19) | 115 (18) | 116 (14) | 0.22 |
| Diastolic BP, mm Hg | 72 (12) | 75 (11) | 78 (11) | <.001 | 76 (13) | 73 (12) | 74 (9) | 0.46 |
| Total cholesterol, mg/dL | 192 (32) | 191 (36) | 190 (42) | 0.95 | 191 (34) | 195 (41) | 183 (35) | 0.35 |
| LDL-cholesterol, mg/dL | 109 (28) | 112 (31) | 110 (37) | 0.36 | 113 (27) | 111 (38) | 101 (30) | 0.21 |
| HDL-cholesterol, mg/dL | 65 (18) | 59 (16) | 53 (16) | <.001 | 61 (17) | 61 (21) | 58 (25) | 0.74 |
| Fasting Triglycerides, mg/dL † | 74 (56, 100) | 89 (67, 123) | 118 (84, 163) | <.001 | 72 (53, 102) | 91 (73, 138) | 98 (74, 133) | 0.01 |
| Fasting glucose, mg/dL | 86 (7) | 95 (9) | 130 (55) | <.001 | 86 (7) | 97 (10) | 122 (39) | <.001 |
| Fasting insulin, μU/mL † | 8.0 (5.0, 11.0) | 11.3 (7.0, 16.9) | 15.7 (9.3, 23.8) | <.001 | 9.8 (5.8, 15.0) | 10.9 (7.2, 15.7) | 14.0 (8.2, 26.7) | 0.05 |
| HOMA-IR † | 1.7 (1.0, 2.4) | 2.7 (1.6, 4.0) | 4.8 (2.6, 8.6) | <.001 | 1.8 (1.2, 3.1) | 2.5 (1.8, 4.0) | 4.0 (2.9, 7.0) | <.001 |
| Metabolic syndrome, n (%) | 59 (11) | 138 (40) | 69 (78) | <.001 | 5 (9) | 19 (38) | 28 (78) | <.001 |
| hs-CRP, μg/mL † | 1.0 (0.4, 2.8) | 2.2 (0.7, 5.1) | 4.8 (1.6, 8.7) | <.001 | 1.6 (0.6, 4.3) | 1.9 (0.7, 5.8) | 4.0 (1.1, 8.8) | 0.03 |
| hs-CRP (>3 μg/mL), n (%) | 123 (23) | 151 (44) | 53 (60) | <.001 | 15 (28) | 17 (34) | 20 (56) | 0.03 |
| Hypertension, n (%) | 99 (18) | 120 (34) | 61 (69) | <.001 | 13 (25) | 14 (28) | 20 (56) | 0.006 |
| Lipid-lowering medication, n (%) | 29 (5) | 29 (8) | 30 (34) | <.001 | 4 (8) | 5 (10) | 14 (39) | <.001 |
| Physical activity score † | 244 (111, 450) | 214 (95, 383) | 147 (62, 294) | <.001 | 256 (144, 504) | 210 (80, 344) | 231 (61, 406) | 0.25 |
| Smoking, lifetime pack-years | 3.2 (6.7) | 4.3 (9.1) | 4.6 (7.6) | 0.07 | 3.8 (6.7) | 3.9 (6.9) | 3.3 (6.8) | 0.93 |
| Average a priori diet quality score (Years 0, 7 and 20) | 69 (12) | 66 (11) | 64 (9) | <.001 | 67 (11) | 69 (11) | 68 (11) | 0.77 |
| Oral contraceptive use, n (%) | 521 (94) | 335 (96) | 86 (97) | 0.14 | 50 (94) | 48 (96) | 33 (92) | 0.70 |
| Post-menopausal status, n (%) | 157 (28) | 139 (40) | 41 (46) | <.001 | 17 (32) | 18 (36) | 18 (50) | 0.22 |
| Menopausal hormone therapy, n (%) | 32 (6) | 22 (6) | 6 (7) | 0.90 | 4 (8) | 5 (10) | 4 (11) | 0.84 |
| Family history of diabetes, n (%) | 186 (34) | 180 (52) | 66 (74) | <.001 | 27 (51) | 27 (54) | 19 (53) | 0.95 |
| Family history of heart disease, n (%) | 273 (49) | 209 (60) | 57 (64) | 0.001 | 26 (49) | 30 (60) | 19 (53) | 0.53 |
| Weight change, kg | 10.6 (11.9) | 17.1 (14.1) | 19.4 (17.7) | <.001 | 11.4 (11.1) | 13.5 (11.2) | 11.5 (17.9) | 0.68 |
| HOMA-IR change | 0.0 (1.4) | 0.9 (2.7) | 2.8 (4.3) | <.001 | 0.3 (1.7) | 0.5 (2.4) | 2.7 (8.7) | 0.07 |
| Time from first birth to CAC, y | 10.7 (4.9) | 11.2 (5.0) | 12.2 (5.0) | 0.02 | 10.9 (4.5) | 11.9 (5.8) | 10.7 (4.0) | 0.47 |
| Time from last birth to EFU, y | 13.8 (5.9) | 15.7 (5.8) | 17.5 (4.5) | <.001 | 12.7 (6.0) | 14.3 (5.6) | 15.8 (5.5) | 0.04 |
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; BP, blood pressure; GD, gestational diabetes; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HOMA-IR, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance; hs-CRP, high sensitivity C-reactive protein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; SD, standard deviation.
“End of follow up” (EFU) is defined as the first exam with CAC >0, or the last exam with CAC=0 measurement at exam years 15, 20 or 25.
Change in weight and HOMA-IR from the nearest exam preceding the first birth to the end of follow up.
*
Based on measurements from the last exam, or the first exam when the women had CAC>0.
†
Median (25th, 75th percentiles)
Note: n=15 women were missing hs-CRP in exam years 10, 15 and 20.