Table 2. Subgroup analysis of intervention delivery mode in the systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of telemedicine in the delivery of diabetes care, low- and middle-income countries, 2010–2020.
| Outcome and type of intervention | Standardized mean difference (95% CI) | I2a | τ2a | Between-group difference, P |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| BMI | 0.002 | |||
| Smartphone app | 0.05 (−0.02 to 0.11) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| SMS | −0.13 (−0.26 to 0.00) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Telemetry | 0.05 (−0.11 to 0.22) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Telephone | −0.27 (−0.47 to −0.07) | 47.68 | 0.05 | |
| Web-based | 0.21 (−0.02 to 0.44) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Self-efficacy | < 0.01 | |||
| Smartphone app | 0.41 (0.05 to 0.77) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| SMS | 2.32 (2.01 to 2.62) | 37.22 | 0.04 | |
| Telemetry | −0.02 (−0.24 to 0.20) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Telephone | 3.18 (2.69 to 3.66) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Adherence to treatment | 0.67 | |||
| Smartphone app | 0.38 (−1.42 to 2.19) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| SMS | 1.16 (0.13 to 2.20) | 97.77 | 1.21 | |
| Telephone | 0.64 (−0.28 to 1.55) | 74.15 | 0.18 | |
| Serum HbA1c levels | 0.66 | |||
| Smartphone app | −0.58 (−0.96 to −0.20) | 96.42 | 0.54 | |
| SMS | −0.24 (−0.54 to 0.06) | 14.16 | 0.00 | |
| Telemetry | −0.40 (−0.78 to −0.02) | 66.59 | 0.05 | |
| Telephone | −0.37 (−0.74 to 0.00) | 61.15 | 0.07 | |
| Web-based (video conference) | −0.89 (−1.85 to 0.08) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Diabetes knowledge | 0.90 | |||
| Smartphone app | 0.63 (−1.02 to 2.27) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| SMS | 0.89 (−0.28 to 2.05) | 97.99 | 2.12 | |
| Telemetry | 0.30 (−0.65 to 1.24) | 88.11 | 0.21 | |
| Web-based | −0.26 (−0.75 to 0.23) | 80.33 | 0.12 | |
| Fasting blood sugar levels | 0.56 | |||
| Smartphone app | −0.17 (−0.39 to 0.04) | 76.54 | 0.06 | |
| SMS | −0.33 (−0.54 to −0.12) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Telemetry | −0.08 (−0.31 to 0.15) | 2.10 | 0.00 | |
| Telephone | −0.04 (−0.64 to 0.56) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Web-based | 0.56 (−1.08 to 2.20) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Serum total cholesterol levels | 0.50 | |||
| Smartphone app | −0.02 (−0.48 to 0.44) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| SMS | 0.00 (−0.27 to 0.27) | 63.77 | 0.07 | |
| Telemetry | −0.18 (−0.44 to 0.07) | 68.37 | 0.06 | |
| Telephone | −0.16 (−0.50 to 0.18) | 56.98 | 0.09 | |
| Serum triglyceride levels | 0.90 | |||
| Smartphone app | 0.22 (−0.18 to 0.63) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| SMS | −0.01 (−0.14 to 0.12) | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
| Telemetry | −0.03 (−0.17 to 0.12) | 23.97 | 0.01 | |
| Telephone | −0.08 (−0.33 to 0.17) | 40.59 | 0.04 | |
| Web-based | 0.05 (−0.19 to 0.29) | 0.00 | 0.00 |
app: application; CI: confidence interval; HbA1c: glycated haemoglobin; SMS: short message service.
a Both I2 and τ2 are measures of heterogeneity in subgroup analyses.