Table 3.

Alterations in G protein and GRKs in cancer.

	Cancer type studied
Alteration in G proteins
Mutations in Gα protein (GNAS, GNAQ, and GNA11) [27]	Appendiceal tumors (20%), breast cancer (16.40%), colorectal cancer (12.7%), lung cancer (10.9%), hematologic cancers (9.10%), melanoma (excluding ocular) (7.3%), and gastrointestinal cancer (excluding appendiceal and colorectal) (7.3%)
Mutations in Gβ protein (GNB1 and GNB2) [28]	Bladder cancer, breast cancer, hematopoietic and lymphoid malignancies, head and neck cancer, kidney cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, skin cancer, stomach cancer, uterine cancer
GNAL [4]	Endometrial cancer, large intestine cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, ovarian cancer
GNG12 [4]	Lung cancer
GNA13 [4]	Breast cancer, endometrial cancer, hematopoietic and lymphoid malignancies, kidney cancer, large intestine cancer, lung cancer
GNA14 [4]	Endometrial cancer, kidney cancer, large intestine cancer, lung cancer, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, skin cancer
Alterations in GRKs
GRK2	Medulloblastoma [216], gallbladder cancer [217]
GRK3	Prostate cancer [218, 219], colon cancer [220], breast cancer [221]
GRK4	Breast cancer [222]
GRK5	Breast cancer [223], non-small-cell lung cancer [224], prostate cancer [225, 226], renal cell carcinoma [227], glioblastoma [228]
GRK6	Colorectal carcinoma [229], papillary thyroid carcinoma [230], medulloblastoma [231]