Table 2.
The effects of valsartan, Trolox, NAC, ALA, captopril, aminoguanidine, or metformin addition to BSA + fructose solution on protein oxidation, glycooxidation, and antioxidant activity.
| BSA | BSA + Fru | BSA + Fru + valsartan | BSA + Fru + Trolox | BSA + Fru + NAC | BSA + Fru + ALA | BSA + Fru + captopril | BSA + Fru + aminoguanidine | BSA + Fru + metformin | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Protein oxidation | |||||||||
| Total thiols | 114 ± 0.63∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 105 ± 1.50∗∗ | 101 ± 4.80 | 114 ± 1.70∗∗∗ | 107 ± 1.40∗∗ | 101 ± 1.30 | 105 ± 1.10∗∗ | 102 ± 2.10 |
| PC | 62 ± 3.70∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 81 ± 1.40∗∗∗∗ | 70 ± 5.10∗∗∗ | 75 ± 4.70∗∗∗ | 65 ± 7.50∗∗ | 60 ± 2.70∗∗∗∗ | 56 ± 1.70∗∗∗∗ | 90 ± 2.60∗∗ |
| AOPP | 22 ± 0.89∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 58 ± 2.10∗∗∗∗ | 49 ± 0.62∗∗∗∗ | 39 ± 3.30∗∗∗∗ | 39 ± 1.20∗∗∗∗ | 45 ± 5.20∗∗∗∗ | 36 ± 3.20∗∗∗∗ | 95 ± 4.20 |
| Protein glycooxidation | |||||||||
| Tryptophan | 238 ± 2.40∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 100 ± 2.50 | 116 ± 12.00 | 103 ± 8.80 | 119 ± 12.00∗ | 158 ± 13.00∗ | 161 ± 3.60∗∗∗∗ | 107 ± 9.20 |
| Kynurenine | 57 ± 1.80∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 67 ± 1.80∗∗∗∗ | 68 ± 1.10∗∗∗∗ | 71 ± 3.10∗∗∗∗ | 53 ± 9.10∗∗∗ | 62 ± 2.90∗∗∗∗ | 66 ± 0.26∗∗∗∗ | 136 ± 3.40∗∗∗∗ |
| N-Formylkynurenine | 21 ± 1.80∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 57 ± 1.20∗∗∗∗ | 53 ± 0.21∗∗∗∗ | 59 ± 1.10∗∗∗∗ | 45 ± 0.01∗∗∗∗ | 71 ± 0.34∗∗∗∗ | 28 ± 1.80∗∗∗∗ | 187 ± 3.00∗∗∗∗ |
| Dityrosine | 48 ± 1.50∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 65 ± 1.90∗∗∗∗ | 67 ± 0.23∗∗∗∗ | 63 ± 1.20∗∗∗∗ | 71 ± 1.20∗∗∗∗ | 57 ± 0.78∗∗∗∗ | 54 ± 0.98∗∗∗∗ | 87 ± 1.00∗∗∗∗ |
| Albumin glycation | |||||||||
| Amyloid-β structure | 61 ± 0.13∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 88 ± 2.60∗∗ | 87 ± 0.34∗∗∗∗ | 86 ± 0.27∗∗∗∗ | 81 ± 0.47∗∗∗∗ | 81 ± 0.41∗∗∗∗ | 80 ± 1.90∗∗∗∗ | 108 ± 1.20∗∗∗ |
| Fructosamine | 51 ± 1.80∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 53 ± 3.50∗∗∗∗ | 55 ± 4.00∗∗∗∗ | 57 ± 4.00∗∗∗∗ | 55 ± 7.60∗∗∗ | 66 ± 3.90∗∗∗ | 62 ± 1.20∗∗∗∗ | 134 ± 2.80∗∗∗∗ |
| AGE | 59 ± 1.10∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 84 ± 1.60∗∗∗∗ | 81 ± 0.69∗∗∗∗ | 81 ± 0.29∗∗∗∗ | 85 ± 2.20∗∗∗ | 82 ± 0.58∗∗∗∗ | 77 ± 2.50∗∗∗∗ | 114 ± 2.10∗∗∗ |
| Albumin antioxidant activity | |||||||||
| TAC | 115 ± 1.10∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 97 ± 2.40 | 86 ± 9.00 | 114 ± 3.20∗∗ | 89 ± 7.10 | 94 ± 4.60 | 93 ± 5.60 | 94 ± 4.50 |
| DPPH | 145 ± 4.60∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 126 ± 2.40∗∗∗∗ | 130 ± 3.00∗∗∗∗ | 146 ± 3.10∗∗∗∗ | 129 ± 8.40∗∗ | 133 ± 3.00∗∗∗∗ | 124 ± 3.70∗∗∗ | 109 ± 3.20∗∗ |
| FRAP | 127 ± 2.30∗∗∗∗ | 100 | 104 ± 1.80∗ | 95 ± 3.30∗ | 129 ± 3.00∗∗∗∗ | 108 ± 1.80∗∗ | 108 ± 2.30∗∗ | 104 ± 2.40 | 98 ± 3.00 |
Abbreviations: AGE: advanced glycation end products; ALA: alpha-lipoic acid; AOPP: advanced oxidation protein products; BSA: bovine serum albumin; DPPH: 2,2-di-phenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging capacity; FRAP: ferric reducing antioxidant power; Fru: fructose; NAC: N-acetylcysteine; PC: protein carbonyls; TAC: total antioxidant capacity; ∗p < 0.05 vs. control; ∗∗p < 0.01 vs. control; ∗∗∗p < 0.001 vs. control; ∗∗∗∗p < 0.0001 vs. control.