Table 2.

Participant exclusions across studies.

	Study 1a (n = 35)	Study 1b (n = 83)	Study 2 (n = 126)	Study 3 (n = 85)
Reason for exclusion
Failed comprehension check	10	15	18	15
Failed attention check	6	12	4	10
Completed study on phone	2	13	13	21
Failed characters’ gender or race manipulation checks	17	43	91	39

Manipulation checks were open-ended prompts to identify the race and gender of the main character and/or invalidator/affirmer at the end of the study. Normative exclusion rate due to failed manipulation checks for Amazon Mechanical Turk samples, 19% (e.g., Goodman et al., 2013; Salerno et al., 2019).