TABLE 1.
Characteristics for all participants and stratified by olfactory and gustatory function1
| n | All | Hyposmia (n = 66) | Normosmia (n = 292) | P value | Hypogeusia (n = 33) | Normogeusia (n = 325) | P value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Demographics | ||||||||
| Age, y | 359 | 73 [69–77] | 75 [71–81] | 72 [69–77] | <0.001 | 72 [69–77] | 73 [69–77] | 0.96 |
| Male | 359 | 209 (58.2) | 40 (60.6) | 169 (57.9) | 0.68 | 27 (81.8) | 182 (56.0) | <0.01 |
| Nutritional status | ||||||||
| BMI, kg/m2 | 359 | 24.8 ± 2.5 | 25.0 ± 2.5 | 24.7 ± 2.5 | 0.39 | 25.3 ± 2.8 | 24.7 ± 2.5 | 0.11 |
| Weight difference, %/2 y | 359 | −0.5 ± 4.4 | −1.4 ± 3.9 | −0.3 ± 4.4 | 0.05 | −0.5 ± 4.1 | −0.4 ± 4.5 | 0.94 |
| ASMMI, kg/m2 | 344 | 6.8 ± 0.9 | 6.8 ± 0.9 | 6.8 ± 0.8 | 0.79 | 7.1 ± 0.8 | 6.8 ± 0.9 | 0.04 |
| Undernutrition2 | 359 | 77 (21.4) | 19 (28.8) | 58 (19.9) | 0.10 | 6 (18.2) | 71 (21.8) | 1.00 |
| Poor appetite3 | 358 | 22 (6.1) | 7 (10.6) | 15 (5.2) | 0.24 | 2 (6.1) | 20 (6.2) | 1.00 |
| Food intake | ||||||||
| Energy, kcal/d | 355 | 2117 ± 530 | 2137 ± 643 | 2113 ± 504 | 0.77 | 2210 ± 585 | 2106 ± 525 | 0.30 |
| Carbohydrates, En% | 355 | 41.1 ± 6.7 | 42.7 ± 7.6 | 40.8 ± 6.4 | 0.04 | 42.5 ± 8.1 | 41.0 ± 6.6 | 0.25 |
| Protein, En% | 355 | 14.6 ± 2.3 | 14.0 ± 2.5 | 14.8 ± 2.2 | 0.01 | 14.5 ± 2.1 | 14.6 ± 2.3 | 0.76 |
| Fat, En% | 355 | 34.9 ± 5.7 | 35.2 ± 6.9 | 34.9 ± 5.4 | 0.69 | 33.3 ± 6.7 | 35.1 ± 5.6 | 0.10 |
| Alcohol, En% | 355 | 3.1 [0.6–6.9] | 1.9 [0.3–4.6] | 3.4 [0.8–7.1] | 0.03 | 2.8 [1.0–7.6] | 3.1 [0.5–6.9] | 0.34 |
| DHD | 355 | 83.9 ± 16.2 | 81.6 ± 16.1 | 84.4 ± 16.1 | 0.21 | 78.4 ± 17.9 | 84.5 ± 15.9 | 0.05 |
| AHEI | 355 | 60.8 ± 10.7 | 57.8 ± 10.3 | 61.5 ± 10.7 | 0.01 | 58.6 ± 10.4 | 61.0 ± 10.8 | 0.24 |
| MDS index | 355 | 33.0 ± 4.6 | 32.0 ± 4.9 | 33.2 ± 4.5 | 0.05 | 32.7 ± 4.1 | 33.0 ± 4.7 | 0.69 |
| Taste and smell | ||||||||
| Poor total taste score4 | 358 | 33 (9.2) | 7 (10.6) | 26 (8.9) | 0.81 | — | — | — |
| Poor sweet | 358 | 55 (15.4) | 12 (18.2) | 43 (14.8) | 0.70 | 17 (51.5) | 38 (11.7) | <0.001 |
| Poor sour | 358 | 113 (31.6) | 23 (34.8) | 90 (30.9) | 0.66 | 27 (81.8) | 86 (26.5) | <0.001 |
| Poor salty | 358 | 134 (37.4) | 30 (45.5) | 103 (35.3) | 0.16 | 25 (75.8) | 109 (33.5) | <0.001 |
| Poor bitter | 358 | 28 (7.8) | 9 (13.6) | 19 (6.5) | 0.07 | 14 (42.4) | 14 (4.3) | <0.001 |
| Poor umami | 358 | 116 (32.4) | 25 (37.9) | 91 (31.3) | 0.31 | 21 (63.6) | 95 (29.2) | <0.001 |
| Self-reported poor taste | 359 | 10 (2.8) | 6 (9.1) | 4 (1.4) | <0.01 | 1 (3.0) | 9 (2.8) | 1.00 |
| Poor TDI score5 | 141 | 24 (17.0) | 22 (68.8) | 2 (1.8) | <0.001 | 1 (8.3) | 23 (17.8) | 0.21 |
| Poor T score | 144 | 34 (23.6) | 19 (57.6) | 15 (13.5) | <0.001 | 3 (25.0) | 31 (23.5) | 1.00 |
| Poor D score | 144 | 29 (20.1) | 18 (56.3) | 11 (9.8) | <0.001 | 1 (8.3) | 28 (21.2) | 0.46 |
| Poor I score | 358 | 66 (18.4) | — | — | — | 7 (21.2) | 59 (18.2) | 0.81 |
| Self-reported poor smell | 359 | 21 (5.8) | 11 (16.7) | 10 (3.4) | <0.001 | 4 (12.1) | 17 (5.2) | 0.12 |
| Covariates | ||||||||
| Current smoking | 359 | 27 (7.5) | 4 (6.1) | 23 (7.9) | 0.80 | 4 (12.1) | 23 (7.1) | 0.28 |
| MMSE score | 359 | 29 [28–30] | 28 [27–29] | 29 [28–30] | 0.11 | 29 [27–29] | 29 [28–30] | 0.77 |
| CES-D score | 357 | 4 [2–8] | 6 [3–11] | 4 [2–8] | 0.41 | 4 [1–8] | 5 [2–8] | 0.32 |
| Number of medications | 359 | 0.31 | 0.82 | |||||
| 0 | 98 (27.3) | 13 (19.7) | 85 (29.1) | 7 (21.2) | 90 (27.7) | |||
| 1–4 | 191 (53.2) | 38 (57.6) | 152 (52.1) | 19 (57.6) | 172 (52.9) | |||
| ≥5 | 70 (19.5) | 15 (22.7) | 55 (18.8) | 7 (21.2) | 63 (19.4) | |||
| Education | 359 | 0.04 | 0.70 | |||||
| Low | 39 (10.9) | 7 (10.6) | 32 (11.0) | 5 (15.2) | 34 (10.5) | |||
| Medium | 187 (52.1) | 43 (65.2) | 143 (49.0) | 17 (51.5) | 169 (52.0) | |||
| High | 133 (37.0) | 16 (24.2) | 117 (40.1) | 11 (33.3) | 122 (37.5) | |||
Values are mean ± SD, median [IQR], or n (%) unless otherwise indicated. AHEI, Alternative Healthy Eating Index 2010; ASMMI, Appendicular Skeletal Muscle Mass Index; CES-D, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression; DHD, Dutch Healthy Diet index 2015; En%, percentage energy intake; MDS, Mediterranean Diet Score; MMSE, Mini Mental State Examination; TDI, Threshold Discrimination Identification.
Undernutrition: >5% body weight loss averaged over 2 y or BMI <20 (if age <70 y) or BMI <22 (if age >70 y).
Poor appetite: Council of Nutrition Appetite Questionnaire score <28.
Poor taste: total taste score <6, sweet score <2, sour score <2, salty score <2, bitter score <1, or umami score <1.
Poor smell: TDI score ≤19.5, T score ≤2.5, D score ≤7, or I score ≤9.