TABLE 1.
Selected characteristics of included Project Viva mother-child pairs according to maternal intake of lutein and zeaxanthin (L/Z) during pregnancy (N = 1580)1
| Quartiles of first-trimester L/Z intake | Quartiles of second-trimester L/Z intake | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristic | Overall | Quartile 1 | Quartile 4 | Quartile 1 | Quartile 4 |
| Maternal characteristics | |||||
| Age at enrollment (y) | 32.1 (5.2) | 30.7 (6.0) | 32.9 (5.2) | 30.9 (5.7) | 33.1 (4.9) |
| Race/ethnicity | |||||
| White | 1087 [68.8] | 255 [64.5] | 263 [66.9] | 259 [67.8] | 256 [67.2] |
| Black | 238 [15.1] | 61 [15.5] | 60 [15.2] | 53 [13.9] | 55 [14.5] |
| Asian | 83 [5.3] | 12 [3.0] | 33 [8.4] | 14 [3.7] | 41 [10.8] |
| Hispanic | 106 [6.7] | 47 [11.9] | 21 [5.2] | 39 [10.3] | 14 [3.6] |
| Other | 66 [4.2] | 20 [5.1] | 17 [4.3] | 16 [4.3] | 15 [3.8] |
| Education | |||||
| Less than college degree | 506 [32.0] | 186 [47.1] | 85 [21.5] | 175 [46.0] | 71 [18.6] |
| 4-y college or more | 1074 [68.0] | 209 [52.9] | 309 [78.5] | 206 [54.0] | 310 [81.4] |
| Annual household income | |||||
| $70,000 or less | 641 [40.6] | 208 [52.6] | 138 [35.1] | 202 [53.1] | 133 [35.0] |
| >$70,000 | 939 [59.4] | 187 [47.4] | 256 [64.9] | 179 [46.9] | 247 [65.0] |
| Married or cohabitating | |||||
| Yes | 1455 [92.1] | 352 [89.2] | 370 [93.9] | 340 [89.0] | 363 [95.3] |
| No | 125 [7.9] | 43 [10.8] | 24 [6.1] | 42 [11.0] | 18 [4.7] |
| Prepregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | |||||
| <18.5 (underweight) | 49 [3.1] | 13 [3.4] | 10 [2.5] | 10 [2.7] | 16 [4.3] |
| 18.5–24.9 (normal) | 952 [60.2] | 211 [53.5] | 261 [66.1] | 200 [52.5] | 251 [66.1] |
| 25.0–29.9 (overweight) | 345 [21.8] | 98 [24.7] | 73 [18.5] | 104 [27.1] | 69 [18.1] |
| ≥30 (obese) | 234 [14.8] | 73 [18.4] | 51 [12.9] | 67 [17.7] | 44 [11.5] |
| Parity | |||||
| Nulliparous | 755 [47.8] | 181 [45.8] | 208 [52.8] | 168 [44.0] | 209 [55.0] |
| Parity 1 or more | 825 [52.2] | 214 [54.2] | 186 [47.2] | 214 [56.0] | 171 [45.0] |
| Smoking status | |||||
| Never | 1089 [68.9] | 260 [65.9] | 277 [70.2] | 248 [65.0] | 265 [69.7] |
| Former | 313 [19.8] | 67 [17.0] | 93 [23.6] | 67 [17.6] | 86 [22.6] |
| During pregnancy | 178 [11.3] | 68 [17.1] | 25 [6.2] | 66 [17.4] | 30 [7.8] |
| First-trimester dietary intake | |||||
| L/Z (mg/d) | 2.6 (2.0) | 1.0 (0.4) | 5.0 (2.0) | ||
| L/Z-rich foods (servings/d) | 1.8 (1.2) | 1.2 (0.8) | 2.7 (1.4) | ||
| Total fruit and vegetables (servings/d) | 5.9 (3.2) | 4.2 (2.4) | 7.8 (3.8) | ||
| Total energy (kcal/d) | 2080 (684) | 2100 (741) | 2090 (776) | ||
| DHA (mg/d) | 116 (128) | 90.0 (148) | 148(137) | ||
| Folate (μg/d) | 928 (429) | 784 (387) | 1040 (456) | ||
| Choline (mg/d) | 331 (66.8) | 309 (69.2) | 355 (68.5) | ||
| Vitamin B-12 (μg/d) | 10.7 (17.5) | 9.9 (7.9) | 10.9 (11.9) | ||
| Alcohol (servings/d) | 0.2 (0.4) | 0.2 (0.2) | 0.2 (0.2) | ||
| Second-trimester dietary intake | |||||
| L/Z (mg/d) | 2.6 (2.0) | 1.0 (0.4) | 5.1 (2.1) | ||
| L/Z-rich foods (servings/d) | 1.9 (1.2) | 1.2 (0.8) | 2.7 (1.2) | ||
| Total fruit and vegetables (servings/d) | 5.9 (3.1) | 4.2 (2.3) | 7.8 (3.3) | ||
| Total energy (kcal/d) | 2160 (683) | 2190 (733) | 2170 (703) | ||
| DHA (mg/d) | 104 (90.2) | 81.9 (81.9) | 128 (107) | ||
| Folate (μg/d) | 1260 (406) | 1120 (453) | 1370 (400) | ||
| Choline (mg/d) | 324 (69.5) | 300 (69.0) | 352 (74.0) | ||
| Vitamin B-12 (μg/d) | 10.6 (6.6) | 10.0 (4.5) | 11.2 (7.8) | ||
| Alcohol (servings/d) | 0.02 (0.0) | 0.02 (0.0) | 0.02(0.0 | ||
| Child characteristics | |||||
| Child sex | |||||
| Male | 810 [51] | 216 [54.6] | 192 [48.8] | 214 [56.0] | 179 [46.9] |
| Female | 770 [49] | 179 [45.4] | 202 [51.2] | 168 [44.0] | 202 [53.1] |
| Gestational age at birth (wk) | 39.5 (2.0) | 39.4 (2.0) | 39.6(1.8) | 39.5 (1.8) | 39.5 (1.8) |
| Birthweight-for-gestational-age z score | 0.2 (0.8) | 0.2 (1.0) | 0.07 (1.0) | 0.1 (1.0) | 0.1 (1.0) |
| Breastfeeding status at 6 mo | |||||
| Formula only, never breastfed | 172 [10.9] | 72 [18.3] | 21 [5.3] | 67 [17.5] | 16 [4.2] |
| Weaned | 592 [37.4] | 167 [42.3] | 126 [31.9] | 160 [41.8] | 131 [34.5] |
| Mixed | 400 [25.3] | 79 [19.9] | 113 [28.6] | 82 [21.6] | 109 [28.6] |
| Breast milk only, no formula | 417 [26.4] | 77 [19.5] | 135 [34.2] | 73 [19.0] | 125 [32.7] |
| Cognitive outcomes in infancy2 | |||||
| VRM (% novelty preference) | 63.8 (16.3) | 65.3 (16.8) | 62.2 (16.7) | 64.6 (17.5) | 64.1 (16.0) |
| Cognitive outcomes in early childhood3 | |||||
| PPVT-III | 104 (14.4) | 101 (15.1) | 105 (13.9) | 101 (14.1) | 105 (14.2) |
| WRAVMA total | 102 (11.3) | 102 (11.1) | 102 (11.8) | 102 (11.0) | 103 (11.4) |
| Cognitive/behavioral outcomes in mid-childhood4 | |||||
| KBIT-II verbal | 112 (15.0) | 108 (15.2) | 114 (14.8) | 108 (15.8) | 115 (14.1) |
| KBIT-II nonverbal | 106 (16.8) | 105 (15.8) | 109 (17.0) | 104 (16.4) | 108 (17.1) |
| WRAVMA drawing | 92.1 (16.7) | 92.6 (17.5) | 91.8 (16.0) | 90.2 (18.0) | 93.3 (16.3) |
| WRAML summary score | 16.9 (4.4) | 16.5 (4.3) | 16.9 (4.5) | 16.6 (4.6) | 16.8 (4.3) |
| BRIEF GEC | 48.7 (9.2) | 49.8 (10.1) | 48.2 (8.7) | 49.5 (9.9) | 47.7 (8.7) |
| SDQ, total difficulties | 6.6 (4.8) | 7.5 (5.4) | 6.1 (4.6) | 7.5 (5.2) | 6.1 (4.5) |
Values are mean (SD) or frequency [%]. Median maternal L/Z intake (range), in mg/d for each quartile: first trimester (n = 1580): Q1 = 0.97 (0.09–1.43), Q4 = 4.50 (3.25–16.3); second trimester (n = 1526): Q1 = 0.98 (0.05–1.43), Q4 = 4.48 (3.19–15.2). Nutrient values were adjusted for total energy intake using the residual model. BRIEF GEC, Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function–Global Executive Composite; KBIT-II, Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, Second Edition; PPVT-III, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Third Edition; Q, quartile; SDQ, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; VRM, visual recognition memory (percent novelty preference); WRAML, Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning, Second Edition; WRAVMA, Wide Range Assessment of Visual Motor Abilities.
Infancy cognitive tests were administered at median 6.4 mo of age.
Early childhood cognitive tests were administered at median 3.2 y of age.
Mid-childhood cognitive tests were administered at median 7.7 y of age.