Table 1.
Characteristics of studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis.
| Study | Language | Disease | Study design | Survey period | Country/territory | Population | Sampling method | Sample size | Female percentage (%) | Age | Response rate (%) | Quality score | Reference | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean | SD | Min | Max | |||||||||||||
| Ahmed, M. Z. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020/NR | Mainland China | general population | NR | 1074 | 46.83 | 33.54 | 11.13 | 14 | 68 | NR | 4 | (Ahmed et al., 2020) |
| Bo, H. X. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.3 | Mainland China | infected people | NR | 714 | 50.90 | 50.2 | 12.9 | - | - | 97.80 | 6 | (Bo et al., 2020) |
| Cai, W. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020/NR | Mainland China | health professionals | NR | 1521 | 75.54 | - | - | 18 | - | NR | 4 | (Cai et al., 2020) |
| Cao, W et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020/NR | Mainland China | university students | C | 7143 | 69.65 | - | - | - | - | 100.00 | 7 | (Cao et al., 2020) |
| Chan, A. O. M. et al. 2004 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2 months after first case in Singapore | Singapore | health professionals | NR | 661 | NR | - | - | - | - | 67.00 | 4 | (Chan and Huak, 2004) |
| Chang, J. et al. 2020 | Chinese | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1-2020.2 | Mainland China | university students | convenient | 3881 | 63.05 | 20 | - | 18 | - | 91.38 | 5 | (Chang et al., 2020) |
| Chen, C. S. et al. 2005 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.5 | Taiwan | health professionals | NR | 128 | 100.00 | 26.5 | 3.1 | - | - | 69.57 | 4 | (Chen et al., 2005) |
| Chen, Y. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020/NR | Mainland China | health professionals | NR | 105 | 90.5 | 32.6 | 6.5 | - | - | 84.70 | 5 | (Chen et al., 2020) |
| Cheng, S. K. et al. 2004 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.6 | Hong Kong | total sample | NR | 284 | 62.32 | - | - | - | - | 60.17 | 5 | (Cheng et al., 2004) |
| Chew, N. W. S. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2-2020.4 | Singapore, India | health professionals | NR | 906 | 64.35 | 29 (median) | - | - | - | 90.60 | 5 | (Chew et al., 2020) |
| Chong, M. Y. et al. 2004 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.5-2003.6 | Taiwan | health professionals | NR | 1257 | 81.07 | 31.8 | 6.4 | 21 | 59 | 50.28 | 5 | (Chong et al., 2004) |
| Consolo, U. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.4 | Italy | health professionals | C | 356 | 39.61 | - | - | - | - | 40.73 | 5 | (Consolo et al., 2020) |
| Fang, Y. et al. 2004 | Chinese | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.7-2003.10 | Mainland China | infected people | NR | 286 | 52.80 | 33.43 | 11.85 | 15 | 64 | 100.00 | 6 | (Fang et al., 2004) |
| Gao, J. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1-2020.2 | Mainland China | general population | NR | 4827 | 67.68 | 32.3 | 10.0 | 10 | 85 | 82.50 | 6 | (Gao et al., 2020) |
| Hawryluck, L. et al. 2004 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.2-2003.6 | Canada | general population | convenient | 129 | NR | - | - | 18 | 66+ | 0.86 | 4 | (Hawryluck et al., 2004) |
| Hong, X. et al. 2009 | English | acute SARS | cohort | 2003.6-2007.9 | Mainland China | infected people | NR | 68 | 66.18 | 38.5 | 12.3 | - | - | 97.14 | 6 | (Hong et al., 2009) |
| Huang, J. Z. et al. 2020 | Chinese | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | health professionals | NR | 230 | 81.30 | 32.6 | 6.2 | 22 | 59 | 93.50 | 5 | (Huang et al., 2020) |
| Huang, Y. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | total sample | NR | 7236 | 54.62 | 35.3 | 5.6 | - | - | 85.30 | 6 | (Huang and Zhao, 2020) |
| Ko, C. H. et al. 2006 | English | SARS | cross-sectional | when the epidemic had just been controlled | Taiwan | general population | R | 1472 | 51.97 | - | - | 15 | 51+ | 94.85 | 6 | (Ko et al., 2006) |
| Kwek, S. K. et al. 2006 | English | SARS | cross-sectional | 3 month post-discharge | Singapore | infected people | NR | 63 | 79.37 | 34.83 | 10.49 | - | - | 43.45 | 5 | (Kwek et al., 2006) |
| Lai, J. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1-2020.2 | Mainland China | health professionals | CMRS | 1257 | 76.69 | - | - | 18 | 40+ | 68.69 | 5 | (Lai et al., 2020) |
| Lam, M. H. B. et al.2009 | English | recovery SARS | cross-sectional | 2005.12-2007.7 | Hong Kong | infected people | NR | 181 | 68.51 | 43.3 | 13.7 | - | - | 49.05 | 5 | (Lam et al., 2009) |
| Lancee, W. J. et al. 2008 | English | recovery SARS | cohort | 2004.10-2005.9 | Canada | health professionals | NR | 139 | 87.05 | 45.0 | 9.6 | - | - | 23.68 | 6 | (Lancee et al., 2008) |
| Lau, J. T. F. et al. 2006 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.5-2003.6 | Hong Kong | general population | R | 818 | 50.24 | - | - | 18 | 50+ | 64.70 | 6 | (Lau et al., 2006) |
| Lee, A. M. et al. 2007 | English | recovery SARS | cohort | 2004.4-2004.5 | Hong Kong | infected people | NR | 96 | 63.54 | - | - | 18 | 61+ | 80.00 | 5 | (Lee et al., 2007) |
| Lei, L. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | general population | convenient | 1593 | 61.27 | 32.3 | 9.8 | - | - | 80.17 | 5 | (Lei et al., 2020) |
| Li, X. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | health professionals | NR | 948 | 76.79 | - | - | 20 | 60+ | NR | 4 | (Li et al., 2020) |
| Li, Y. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | prospective cohort | 2020.2 | Mainland China | university students | NR | 1442 | 61.79 | - | - | - | - | 71.20 | 4 | (Li et al., 2020) |
| Liang, L. L. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1 | Mainland China | general population | convenient | 584 | 61.82 | - | - | 14 | 35 | 95.70 | 5 | (Liang et al., 2020) |
| Liu, C. Y. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | health professionals | NR | 512 | 84.57 | - | - | 18 | 60+ | 85.33 | 5 | (Liu et al., 2020) |
| Liu, N. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1-2020.2 | Mainland China | general population | NR | 285 | 54.39 | - | - | - | - | 95.00 | 5 | (Liu et al., 2020) |
| Liu, X. et al. 2012 | English | recovery SARS | cross-sectional | 2006 | Mainland China | health professionals | SR | 549 | 76.50 | - | - | - | - | 83.00 | 6 | (Liu et al., 2012) |
| Liu, Z. R. et al. 2004 | Chinese | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.5 | Mainland China | university students | CS | 6280 | 38.74 | 20.3 | 2.0 | - | - | 92.35 | 6 | (Liu et al., 2004) |
| Lü, S. H. et al. 2010 | Chinese | acute SARS | retrospective | 2003.3-2003.6 | Mainland China | general population | MS | 2379 | 45.61 | 39.12 | 13.67 | 18 | 69 | 93.96 | 6 | (Lü et al., 2010) |
| Lu, W. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | health professionals | NR | 2299 | 77.64 | - | - | - | - | 94.88 | 5 | (Lu et al., 2020) |
| Lu, Y. C. et al. 2006 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.7-2004.3 | Taiwan | health professionals | NR | 127 | 58.27 | - | - | - | - | 94.07 | 5 | (Lu et al., 2006) |
| Lung, F. W. et al. 2009 | English | recovery SARS | longitudinal | 2004.7-2005.3 | Taiwan | health professionals | NR | 123 | NR | - | - | - | - | 96.85 | 5 | (Lung et al., 2009) |
| Mak, I. W. C. et al. 2009 | English | recovery SARS | cohort | 2005.9-2006.3 | Hong Kong | infected people | NR | 90 | 62.22 | 41.1 | 12.1 | - | - | 96.77 | 6 | (Mak et al., 2009) |
| Maunder, R. G. et al. 2006 | English | recovery SARS | cohort | 2004.10-2005.9 | Canada | health professionals | NR | 769 | 86.87 | - | - | - | - | 38.76 | 4 | (Maunder et al., 2006) |
| Mazza, C. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.3 | Italy | general population | NR | 2766 | 71.66 | 32.94 | 13.2 | 18 | 90 | 98.36 | 5 | (Mazza et al., 2020) |
| Mihashi, M. et al. 2009 | English | recovery SARS | cross-sectional | 2004.2-2004.3 | Mainland China | general population | NR | 187 | 36.90 | 26.3 | 8.0 | - | - | 62.33 | 3 | (Mihashi et al., 2009) |
| Ni, M. Y. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020/NR | Mainland China | total sample | NR | 1791 | 61.75 | - | - | - | - | NR | 5 | (Ni et al., 2020) |
| Nickell, L. A. et al. 2004 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.4 | Canada | health professionals | NR | 510 | 80.59 | - | - | - | - | 11.91 | 4 | (Nickell et al., 2004) |
| Ozamiz-Etxebarria, N. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.3 | Spain | general population | NR | 976 | 81.15 | - | - | 18 | 78 | 40.67 | 4 | (Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al., 2020) |
| Peng, E. Y. C. et al. 2010 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.11 | Taiwan | general population | SR | 1278 | 49.69 | 41.6 | 16.6 | 18 | 89 | 68.31 | 5 | (Peng et al., 2010) |
| Reynolds, D. L. et al. 2008 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.3-2003.6 | Canada | total sample | NR | 1057 | 61.12 | - | - | - | - | 55.28 | 6 | (Reynolds et al., 2008) |
| Shacham, M. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.3-2020.4 | Israel | health professionals | NR | 338 | 58.58 | 46.39 | 11.18 | 24 | 74 | NR | 4 | (Shacham et al., 2020) |
| Sim, K. et al. 2004 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.7 | Singapore | health professionals | NR | 277 | 85.20 | 38.0 | 12.7 | - | - | 92.03 | 5 | (Sim et al., 2004) |
| Sim, K. et al. 2010 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.7 | Singapore | general population | consecutive | 415 | 40.72 | 36.6 | 13.9 | - | - | 78.01 | 4 | (Sim et al., 2010) |
| Su, T. P. et al. 2007 | English | acute SARS | prospective | 2003.4-2003.6 | Taiwan | health professionals | NR | 102 | 100.00 | 25.4 | 3.7 | - | - | 95.33 | 5 | (Su et al., 2007) |
| Tan, W. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | general population | NR | 673 | 25.56 | 30.8 | 7.4 | - | - | 50.87 | 4 | (Tan et al., 2020) |
| Tang, W. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | university students | convenient | 2485 | 61.37 | 19.81 | 1.55 | 16 | 27 | 68.84 | 4 | (Tang et al., 2020) |
| Tham, K. Y. et al. 2004 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.11 | Singapore | health professionals | NR | 96 | 68.75 | - | - | - | - | 77.42 | 4 | (Tham et al., 2004) |
| Tian, B. C. et al. 2007 | Chinese | recovery SARS | cross-sectional | 2006.3-2006.4 | Mainland China | general population | convenient | 2424 | 45.46 | 39.12 | 13.67 | - | - | 101.00 | 5 | (Tian et al., 2007) |
| Tian, F. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1-2020.2 | Mainland China | general population | convenient | 1060 | 48.21 | 35.01 | 12.8 | 13 | 76 | 93.64 | 5 | (Tian et al., 2020) |
| Wang, C. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1-2020.2 | Mainland China | general population | convenient | 1210 | 67.27 | - | - | 12 | 59 | 92.79 | 5 | (Wang et al., 2020) |
| Wang, S. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1-2020.2 | Mainland China | health professionals | NR | 123 | 90.24 | 33.75 | 8.41 | 20 | 50+ | 50.00 | 4 | (Wang et al., 2020) |
| Wu, K. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020/NR | Mainland China | health professionals | NR | 60 | 26.67 | 33.5 | 12.4 | 25 | 59 | NR | 4 | (Wu and Wei, 2020) |
| Yin, Q. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | health professionals | convenient | 371 | 61.46 | 35.30 | 9.48 | 20 | 40+ | 98.41 | 5 | (Yin et al., 2020) |
| Zhang, C. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1-2020.2 | Mainland China | health professionals | convenient | 1563 | 82.73 | - | - | 18 | 60+ | 80.32 | 6 | (Zhang et al., 2020) |
| Zhang, K. R. et al. 2005 | Chinese | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.9-2003.10 | Mainland China | total sample | NR | 296 | 67.57 | 34 | 12 | 8 | 81 | NR | 4 | (Zhang et al., 2005) |
| Zhang, W. R. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2-2020.3 | Mainland China | health professionals | NR | 2182 | 64.21 | - | - | 16 | 60+ | NR | 4 | (Zhang et al., 2020) |
| Zhang, Y. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1-2020.2 | Mainland China | general population | convenient | 263 | 59.70 | 37.7 | 14.0 | 18 | 50+ | 65.75 | 5 | (Zhang and Ma, 2020) |
| Zhu, J. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | health professionals | NR | 165 | 83.03 | 34.16 | 8.06 | - | - | 100.00 | 6 | (Zhu et al., 2020) |
| Zhu, S. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2-2020.3 | Mainland China | total sample | NR | 2279 | 59.72 | - | - | - | - | NR | 4 | (Zhu et al., 2020) |
| Shi, T. Y. et al. 2005 | Chinese | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.12-2004.1 | Mainland China | total sample | C | 162 | 79.63 | - | - | - | - | 93.1 | 6 | (Shi et al., 2005) |
| Zhang, X. J. et al. 2003 | Chinese | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.4-2003.5 | Mainland China | general population | C | 1031 | 35.89 | 33.17 | - | 16 | 86 | 91.73 | 6 | (Zhang et al., 2003) |
| He, L. P. et al. 2004 | Chinese | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.5 | Mainland China | general population | CR | 1016 | NR | 27.30 | 9.62 | - | - | 94.69 | 6 | (He et al., 2004) |
| Zhao, Q. et al. 2020 | Chinese | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2 | Mainland China | infected people | NR | 106 | 56.60 | 35.90 | 11.92 | 21 | 65 | 100.00 | 6 | (Zhao et al., 2020) |
| Gao, H. S. et al. 2006 | Chinese | acute SARS | longitudinal | 2003.9-2004.6 | Mainland China | infected people | NR | 67 | 68.66 | 25.32 | 8.54 | 15 | 67 | 88.16 | 5 | (Gao et al., 2006) |
| Gao, H. S. et al. 2006 | Chinese | SARS | longitudinal | 2003.6-2004.6 | Mainland China | infected people | NR | 67 | 68.66 | - | - | - | - | NR | 4 | (Gao et al., 2006) |
| Wei, L. P. et al. 2005 | Chinese | SARS | longitudinal | within 2 weeks and after 3 months of post-charge | Mainland China | infected people | NR | 22 | 86.36 | - | - | - | - | NR | 4 | (Wei et al., 2005) |
| Cheng, S. K. et al. 2004 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.5-2003.7 | Hong Kong | infected people | NR | 180 | 66.67 | 36.9 | 11.1 | 18 | 70 | 42.35 | 5 | (Cheng et al., 2004) |
| Wu, K. K. et al. 2005 | English | SARS | longitudinal | at 1 month and 3 months after discharge from hospital | Hong Kong | infected people | NR | 131 | 56.49 | 41.82 | 14.01 | 18 | 84 | 27.52 | 4 | (Wu et al., 2005) |
| Lee, D. T. S. et al. 2006 | English | acute SARS | case-control | 2003.4-2003.6 | Hong Kong | pregnant women | consecutive | 235 | 100.00 | 29.6 | 5.4 | - | - | 57.6 | 4 | (Lee et al., 2006) |
| Wu, Y. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.1-2020.2 | Mainland China | pregnant women | NR | 1285 | 100.00 | - | - | 27 | 32 | NR | 4 | (Wu et al., 2020) |
| Xie, X. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2-2020.3 | Mainland China | children | NR | 1784 | 43.27 | - | - | - | - | 76.57 | 4 | (Xie et al., 2020) |
| Zhou, S. J. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.3 | Mainland China | adolescents | NR | 8079 | 53.55 | 16 | - | 12 | 18 | 99.25 | 5 | (Zhou et al., 2020) |
| Yuan, R. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020/NR | Mainland China | the parents of children hospitalized or not hospitalized | NR | 100 | 57.00 | - | - | - | - | NR | 4 | (Yuan et al., 2020) |
| Nguyen, H. C. et al. 2020 | English | COVID-19 | cross-sectional | 2020.2-2020.3 | Vietnam | outpatients | NR | 3947 | 55.66 | 44.4 | 17.0 | 18 | 60+ | 97.96 | 6 | (Nguyen et al., 2020) |
| Han, Z. H. et al. 2020 | Chinese | COVID-19 | longitudinal | 2020.1-2020.3 | Mainland China | suspected infected people | NR | 72 | 41.67 | - | - | 11 | 73 | 100 | 5 | (Han et al., 2020) |
| Wan, I. Y. P. et al. 2004 | English | acute SARS | cross-sectional | 2003.4 | Hong Kong | patients on a waiting list for thoracic surgery | NR | 57 | 31.58 | 59.77 | 14.5 | 17 | 83 | 31.67 | 4 | (Wan et al., 2004) |
Abbreviations: COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019; SARS: Severe acute respiratory syndrome; M: multistage; SD: standard deviation; S: stratified; C: cluster; R: random; NR: not reported.