Table 8.
Regression analysis for the contribution of personality factors (prediction) toward COVID-19 impacts among the study population (N = 1,319, 744 females and 575 males).
| COVID-19-related impacts | 1st R2 | F R2 | Predictors (B, t, P, 95% CI of B) $ |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Precautions to avoid COVID-19 infection | |||
| Wash and disinfect hands more frequently: Total | 0.027 | 0.053 | E (0.062, 4.37, <0.0001, 0.034–0.090), C (0.026, 2.39, 0.017, 0.005–0.048) |
| Jordan | 0.021 | 0.060 | E (0.063, 2.35, 0.020, 0.010–0.116), A (0.080, 2.42, 0.016, 0.015–0.144) |
| KSA | 0.045 | 0.090 | E (0.073, 2.64, 0.009, 0.019–0.127), C (0.043, 2.00, 0.046, 0.001–0.085) |
| Palestine | 0.019 | 0.054 | E (0.061, 2.04, 0.042, 0.002–0.120), C (0.047, 2.06, 0.040, 0.002–0.092) |
| UK | 0.046 | 0.060 | E (0.061, 2.22, 0.027, 0.007–0.114) |
| Strict social distancing application: Total | 0.028 | 0.037 | O (0.028, 2.08, 0.038, 0.002–0.055), C (0.030, 2.83, 0.005, 0.009–0.050) |
| Jordan | 0.024 | 0.033 | No personality predictors |
| KSA | 0.026 | 0.068 | N (0.042, 2.22, 0.027, 0.005–0.079), C (0.077, 3.57, <0.0001, 0.035–0.120) |
| Palestine | 0.012 | 0.018 | No personality predictors |
| UK | 0.052 | 0.077 | E (0.078, 2.95, 0.003, 0.026–0.130) |
| Crowded area avoidance: Total | 0.028 | 0.043 | C (0.037, 4.50, <0.0001, 0.021–0.053) |
| Jordan | 0.025 | 0.045 | C (0.043, 2.66, 0.008, 0.011–0.075) |
| KSA | 0.045 | 0.101 | C (0.070, 4.52, <0.0001, 0.039–0.100) |
| Palestine | 0.021 | 0.030 | No personality predictors |
| UK | 0.030 | 0.043 | E (0.045, 2.08, 0.038, 0.003–0.088) |
| Avoidance of contact with people or their pets: Total | 0.015 | 0.019 | C (0.022, 2.14, 0.033, 0.002–0.043) |
| Jordan | 0.028 | 0.044 | A (0.073, 2.36, 0.019, 0.012–0.134) |
| KSA | 0.042 | 0.061 | C (0.057, 2.57, 0.011, 0.013–0.101) |
| Palestine | 0.029 | 0.044 | No personality predictors |
| UK | 0.007 | 0.023 | No personality predictors |
| Daily habit changes: Total | 0.034 | 0.047 | E (0.070, 4.22, <0.0001, 0.037–0.102) |
| Jordan | 0.016 | 0.028 | No personality predictors |
| KSA | 0.082 | 0.124 | E (0.072, 2.10, 0.036, 0.005–0.140), C (0.066, 2.47, 0.014, 0.013–0.118) |
| Palestine | 0.033 | 0.053 | No personality predictors |
| UK | 0.050 | 0.067 | E (0.075, 2.40, 0.017, 0.014–0.136) |
| 2. Feeling behavioral changes and distress | |||
| Stress is more: Total | 0.015 | 0.174 | N (0.193, 14.26, <0.0001, 0.167–0.220), A (−0.062, −2.80, 0.005, −0.105 to −0.019) |
| Jordan | 0.014 | 0.131 | N (0.183, 6.69, <0.0001, 0.129–0.236) |
| KSA | 0.013 | 0.193 | N (0.187, 6.63, <0.0001, 0.132–0.243), E (0.134, 3.28, 0.001, 0.054–0.215), A (−0.170,−3.78, <0.0001, −0.259 to −0.082) |
| Palestine | 0.028 | 0.246 | N (0.249, 9.67, <0.0001, 0.198–0.300) |
| UK | 0.030 | 0.201 | N (0.207, 8.25, <0.0001, 0.157–0.256) |
| Depression is more: Total | 0.039 | 0.197 | N (0.197, 14.48, <0.0001, 0.170–0.223), A (−0.058, −2.62, 0.009, −0.101 to −0.014) |
| Jordan | 0.013 | 0.151 | N (0.187, 6.63, <0.0001, 0.132–0.243), E (0.134, 3.28, 0.001, 0.054–0.215) |
| KSA | 0.022 | 0.208 | N (0.184, 7.15, <0.0001, 0.133–0.234), A (−0.143, −3.31, 0.001, −0.229 to −0.058) |
| Palestine | 0.046 | 0.256 | N (0.253, 9.54, <0.0001, 0.201–0.305) |
| UK | 0.076 | 0.213 | N (0.189, 7.42, <0.0001, 0.139–0.240) |
| Sad is more: Total | 0.024 | 0.173 | N (0.191, 13.73, <0.0001, 0.164–0.218), A (−0.064, −2.81, 0.005, −0.108 to −0.019) |
| Jordan | 0.042 | 0.170 | N (0.201, 7.17, <0.0001, 0.146–0.256) |
| KSA | 0.008 | 0.172 | N (0.176, 6.12, <0.0001, 0.120–0.233), E (0.090, 2.14, 0.033, 0.007–0.172), A (−0.174, −3.78, <0.0001, −0.264 to −0.083) |
| Palestine | 0.031 | 0.217 | N (0.236, 8.74, <0.0001, 0.183–0.289) |
| UK | 0.035 | 0.182 | N (0.193, 7.55, <0.0001, 0.143–0.244) |
| Worry more about the future: Total | 0.021 | 0.144 | N (0.186, 13.74, <0.0001, 0.160–0.213) |
| Jordan | 0.031 | 0.129 | N (0.170, 6.14, <0.0001, 0.115–0.224) |
| KSA | 0.034 | 0.185 | N (0.200, 6.76, <0.0001, 0.142–0.258), E (0.145, 3.37, 0.001, 0.060–0.229), A (−0.103, −2.18, 0.030, −0.196 to −0.010) |
| Palestine | 0.016 | 0.221 | N (0.250, 9.19, <0.0001, 0.197–0.308) |
| UK | 0.021 | 0.118 | N (0.152, 5.91, <0.0001, 0.101–0.202) |
| Feel more lonely after COVID-19: Total | 0.032 | 0.140 | N (0.162, 11.29, <0.0001, 0.134–0.190), A (−0.062, −2.65, 0.008, −0.107 to −0.016) |
| Jordan | 0.024 | 0.114 | N (0.163, 5.81, <0.0001, 0.108–0.219) |
| KSA | 0.031 | 0.190 | N (0.168, 5.85, <0.0001, 0.111–0.224), E (0.155, 3.62, <0.0001, 0.071–0.240), A (−0.103, −2.25, 0.025, −0.194 to −0.013), C (−0.093, −2.87, 0.004, −0.157 to −0.029) |
| Palestine | 0.011 | 0.149 | N (0.203, 7.22, <0.0001, 0.147–0.258) |
| UK | 0.050 | 0.136 | N (0.158, 5.63, <0.0001, 0.103–0.213) |
| 3. Fears and concerns | |||
| Afraid to get COVID-19: Total | 0.002 | 0.060 | N (0.115, 7.60, <0.0001, 0.085–0.144), E (0.088, 4.13, <0.0001, 0.046–0.130), A (−0.065, −2.72, 0.007, −0.112 to −0.018) |
| Jordan | 0.004 | 0.020 | N (0.068, 2.32, 0.021, 0.010–0.126) |
| KSA | 0.043 | 0.162 | N (0.135, 4.73, <0.0001, 0.079–0.192), E (0.136, 3.27, 0.001, 0.054–0.218), A (−0.164, −3.60, <0.0001, −0.254 to −0.074) |
| Palestine | 0.018 | 0.104 | N (0.156, 5.21, <0.0001, 0.097–0.214), E (0.104, 2.39, 0.018, 0.018–0.189), O (−0.091, −2.18, 0.030, −0.173 to −0.009) |
| UK | 0.004 | 0.048 | N (0.103, 3.80, <0.0001, 0.050–0.156) |
| Afraid of lack of healthcare due to COVID-19: Total | 0.014 | 0.079 | N (0.121, 7.55, <0.0001, 0.090–0.153), E (0.064, 2.84, 0.005, 0.020–0.109), A (−0.103, −4.07, <0.0001, −0.153 to −0.054) |
| Jordan | 0.002 | 0.018 | N (0.074, 2.36, 0.019, 0.012–0.135) |
| KSA | 0.004 | 0.139 | N (0.100, 3.13, 0.002, 0.037–0.162), E (0.198, 4.14, <0.0001, 0.104–0.292), A (−0.162, −3.17, 0.002, −0.262 to −0.061), C (−0.133, −3.69, <0.0001, −0.204 to −0.062) |
| Palestine | 0.041 | 0.163 | N (0.170, 5.56, <0.0001, 0.110–0.230), A (−0.117, −2.27, 0.024, −0.219 to −0.016) |
| UK | 0.003 | 0.080 | N (0.143, 5.16, <0.0001, 0.088–0.198) |
| Afraid to lose my job: Total | 0.012 | 0.054 | N (0.123, 7.68, <0.0001, 0.092–0.154), E (0.052, 2.25, 0.024, 0.007–0.097) |
| Jordan | 0.035 | 0.051 | N (0.074, 2.38, 0.018, 0.013–0.136) |
| KSA | 0.024 | 0.064 | N (0.110, 3.74, <0.0001, 0.052–0.168) |
| Palestine | 0.006 | 0.092 | N (0.177, 5.55, <0.0001, 0.114–0.239) |
| UK | 0.033 | 0.071 | N (0.106, 3.59, <0.0001, 0.048–0.164) |
| Afraid of separation from my family or beloved ones: Total | 0.024 | 0.100 | N (0.149, 9.44, <0.0001, 0.118–0.180), E (0.053, 2.36, 0.018, 0.009–0.097), A (−0.053, −2.12, 0.034, −0.102 to −0.004) |
| Jordan | 0.029 | 0.062 | N (0.110, 3.45, 0.001, 0.047–0.172) |
| KSA | 0.019 | 0.177 | N (0.167, 5.33, <0.0001, 0.105–0.228), E (0.149, 3.27, 0.001, 0.059–0.238), A (−0.225, −4.50, <0.0001, −0.323 to −0.126) |
| Palestine | 0.051 | 0.150 | N (0.171, 6.12, <0.0001, 0.116–0.226) |
| UK | 0.043 | 0.146 | N (0.184, 6.19, <0.0001, 0.126–0.243), C (0.094, 2.92, 0.004, 0.031–0.158) |
| Afraid food and necessary things will not be available: Total | 0.030 | 0.107 | N (0.134, 8.83, <0.0001, 0.104–0.163), E (0.092, 4.30, <0.0001, 0.050–0.134), A (−0.087, −3.63, <0.0001, −0.134 to −0.040) |
| Jordan | 0.051 | 0.102 | N (0.125, 4.33, <0.0001, 0.068–0.181) |
| KSA | 0.032 | 0.135 | N (0.101, 3.19, 0.002, 0.039–0.163), E (0.163, 3.45, 0.001, 0.070–0.256), A (−0.146, −2.88, 0.004, −0.245 to −0.046), C (−0.097, −2.71, 0.007, −0.167 to −0.026) |
| Palestine | 0.025 | 0.160 | N (0.201, 7.14, <0.0001, 0.145–0.256), E (0.095, 2.30, 0.022, 0.014–0.177) |
| UK | 0.076 | 0.156 | N (0.102, 3.69, <0.0001, 0.048–0.157), E (0.111, 2.73, 0.007, 0.031–0.191), A (−0.122, −2.86, 0.005, −0.205 to −0.038) |
| Worried about contamination of food or water source with COVID-19 virus: Total | 0.025 | 0.084 | N (0.112, 7.64, <0.0001, 0.083–0.140), E (0.108, 5.24, <0.0001, 0.068–0.149), A (−0.060, −2.58, 0.010, −0.105 to −0.014) |
| Jordan | 0.039 | 0.070 | N (0.091, 3.33, 0.001, 0.037–0.145) |
| KSA | 0.009 | 0.104 | N (0.141, 4.73, <0.0001, 0.084–0.198), E (0.204, 4.73, <0.0001, 0.119–0.288) |
| Palestine | 0.006 | 0.074 | N (0.125, 4.57, <0.0001, 0.071–0.179), C (0.089, 2.86, 0.005, 0.028–0.150) |
| UK | 0.081 | 0.159 | N (0.112, 3.83, <0.0001, 0.054–0.169), E (0.151, 3.53, <0.0001, 0.067–0.235), A (−0.102, −2.28, 0.023, −0.189 to −0.014) |
| Afraid of economic effects on me and my family: Total | 0.008 | 0.067 | N (0.122, 9.13, <0.0001, 0.096–0.148), E (0.044, 2.31, 0.021, 0.007–0.082) |
| Jordan | 0.004 | 0.063 | N (0.093, 3.76, <0.0001, 0.044–0.142), O (0.100, 2.69, 0.007, 0.027–0.173) |
| KSA | 0.016 | 0.127 | N (0.177, 6.07, <0.0001, 0.120–0.234), E (0.174, 4.03, <0.0001, 0.089–0.259) |
| Palestine | 0.036 | 0.175 | N (0.152, 5.82, <0.0001, 0.101–0.204), A (−0.116, −2.72, 0.007, −0.200 to −0.032), C (0.073, 2.57, 0.011, 0.017–0.130) |
| UK | 0.011 | 0.040 | N (0.072, 3.13, 0.002, 0.027–0.117) |
| Afraid of punishment if one violates or does not comply with authority measures: Total | 0.034 | 0.085 | N (0.115, 7.79, <0.0001, 0.086–0.144), E (0.113, 5.28, <0.0001, 0.071–0.155), O (−0.053, −2.63, 0.009, −0.093 to −0.014) |
| Jordan | 0.027 | 0.055 | N (0.093, 3.12, 0.002, 0.034–0.151) |
| KSA | 0.019 | 0.092 | N (0.124, 4.27, <0.0001, 0.067–0.182), E (0.159, 3.65, <0.0001, 0.074–0.245), O (−0.094, −2.13, 0.034, −0.180 to −0.007) |
| Palestine | 0.054 | 0.082 | N (0.076, 2.67, 0.008, 0.020–0.132), E (0.088, 2.11, 0.035, 0.006–0.170) |
| UK | 0.016 | 0.086 | N (0.135, 4.53, <0.0001, 0.076–0.194), E (0.139, 3.16, 0.002, 0.052–0.226) |
| Worried about safety of myself and my family: Total | 0.019 | 0.081 | N (0.114, 7.97, <0.0001, 0.086–0.142), E (0.063, 3.11, 0.002, 0.023–0.102), A (−0.067, −2.97, 0.003, −0.112 to −0.023) |
| Jordan | 0.032 | 0.079 | N (0.111, 4.13, <0.0001, 0.058–0.165) |
| KSA | 0.009 | 0.123 | N (0.135, 4.51, <0.0001, 0.076–0.194), E (0.110, 2.54, 0.012, 0.025–0.196), A (−0.170, −3.57, <0.0001, −0.264 to −0.076) |
| Palestine | 0.043 | 0.140 | N (0.162, 6.01, <0.0001, 0.109–0.215), C (0.066, 2.15, 0.032, 0.006–0.126) |
| UK | 0.015 | 0.057 | N (0.091, 3.52, <0.0001, 0.040–0.141), E (0.090, 2.38, 0.018, 0.016–0.165) |
| 4. Effects on opinions and beliefs | |||
| Afraid health authorities are not transparent regarding COVID-19: Total | 0.035 | 0.088 | N (0.097, 6.41, <0.0001, 0.067–0.126), A (−0.095, −3.89, <0.0001, −0.144 to −0.047) |
| Jordan | 0.024 | 0.085 | N (0.141, 4.73, <0.0001, 0.083–0.200) |
| KSA | 0.028 | 0.105 | N (0.062, 2.06, 0.040, 0.003–0.122), A (−0.153, −3.04, 0.003, −0.252 to −0.054), C (−0.075, −2.19, 0.029, −0.143 to −0.008) |
| Palestine | 0.048 | 0.128 | N (0.111, 3.68, <0.0001, 0.051–0.170), A (−0.141, −2.78, 0.006, −0.241 to −0.041) |
| UK | 0.014 | 0.054 | N (0.097, 3.64, <0.0001, 0.044–0.149) |
| Home self-isolation is acceptable: Total | 0.023 | 0.038 | A (0.047, 3.15, 0.002, 0.018–0.076), C (0.027, 2.64, 0.008, 0.007–0.047) |
| Jordan | 0.023 | 0.039 | A (0.081, 2.38, 0.018, 0.014–0.148) |
| KSA | 0.033 | 0.056 | C (0.043, 2.79, 0.006, 0.013–0.074) |
| Palestine | 0.016 | 0.048 | A (0.099, 3.33, 0.001, 0.040–0.157) |
| UK | 0.030 | 0.048 | No personality predictors |
| Imposing curfews is acceptable: Total | 0.023 | 0.038 | A (0.044, 2.75, 0.006, 0.013–0.075), C (0.033, 3.07, 0.002, 0.012–0.055) |
| Jordan | 0.023 | 0.035 | No personality predictors |
| KSA | 0.013 | 0.055 | C (0.074, 3.82, <0.0001, 0.036–0.112) |
| Palestine | 0.015 | 0.038 | A (0.095, 2.78, 0.006, 0.028–0.162) |
| UK | 0.023 | 0.035 | E (0.061, 2.00, 0.046, 0.001–0.120) |
| People communication will change after COVID-19: Total | 0.034 | 0.054 | N (0.054, 3.75, <0.0001, 0.026–0.082), A (−0.057, −2.45, 0.014, −0.103 to −0.011) |
| Jordan | 0.012 | 0.025 | N (0.059, 2.06, 0.040, 0.003–0.114) |
| KSA | 0.047 | 0.118 | N (0.080, 2.70, 0.007, 0.022–0.138), E (0.136, 3.16, 0.002, 0.051–0.221), A (−0.149, −3.15, 0.002, −0.242 to −0.056) |
| Palestine | 0.013 | 0.078 | N (0.074, 2.62, 0.009, 0.019–0.130), A (−0.148, −3.09, 0.002, −0.243 to −0.054) |
| UK | 0.062 | 0.070 | No personality predictors |
N, neuroticism; E, extraversion; O, openness; A, agreeableness; C, conscientiousness; 1st R2, 1st block R2 (coefficient of determination) using confounding variables (covariates) gender, age, education, and ethnicity in the first block of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis; F R2, final R2 (coefficient of determination) after the addition of personality factors in the second block of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis; B, beta statistics; t, t statistics; P, probability value; 95% CI of B, confidence intervals of beta.
$
Personality factors (predictors) that contribute toward COVID-19-related impacts identified using hierarchical multiple regression analysis. The significance of F statistic change for all statements was P <0.05.