Table 2. Association of Different Sensory Input Balance Disorders With All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality Among US Adults.
| Mortality outcome | Death/No. | Weighted death (%) | Hazard ratio (95% CI) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Model 1a | Model 2a,b | |||
| All-cause | ||||
| None | 526/3307 | 6 205 210 (9.8) | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| Vestibularc | 846/2267 | 6 631 921 (24.1) | 1.41 (1.19-1.66) | 1.31 (1.08-1.58) |
| Visual/proprioceptived | 158/242 | 750 524 (46.4) | 1.95 (1.56-2.43) | 1.68 (1.37-2.07) |
| Cardiovascular diseasee | ||||
| None | 62/2975 | 666 432 (1.1) | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| Vestibularc | 116/1819 | 897 875 (3.9) | 1.71 (1.23-2.38) | 1.59 (1.12-2.27) |
| Visual/proprioceptived | 27/159 | 145 530 (12.9) | 3.00 (1.76-5.13) | 2.39 (1.48-3.88) |
| All cancerf | ||||
| None | 109/3078 | 1 812 790 (3.1) | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| Vestibularc | 155/2016 | 1 557 762 (6.2) | 1.50 (1.12-2.02) | 1.39 (1.04-1.86) |
| Visual/proprioceptived | 15/211 | 79 635 (5.8) | 1.34 (0.68-2.65) | 1.05 (0.48-2.30) |
| Accident | ||||
| None | 12/3307 | 174 674 (0.3) | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| Vestibularc | 22/2267 | 214 746 (0.8) | 2.64 (0.68-10.3) | 2.13 (0.48-9.51) |
| Visual/proprioceptived | 4/242 | 14 318 (0.9) | 5.93 (1.15-30.5) | 8.68 (1.81-41.6) |
| Other cause | ||||
| None | 272/3307 | 2 931 221 (4.6) | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| Vestibularc | 430/2267 | 2 959 212 (10.7) | 1.21 (0.93-1.56) | 1.15 (0.86-1.53) |
| Visual/proprioceptived | 84/242 | 321 183 (19.9) | 1.66 (1.23-2.24) | 1.39 (1.02-1.89) |
Adjusted for age (5-year intervals), sex (male or female), race/ethnicity (non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and other), educational attainment (less than high school, high school graduate, above high school), family poverty status (ratio of family income to the federal poverty level: <1.30, 1.30-3.49, or ≥3.5).
Additionally adjusted for leisure-time physical activity (inactive or active), alcohol consumption (0, 0.1-4.9, 5-14.9, 15-29.9, or ≥30 g/d), body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared: <18.5, 18.5-24.9, 25-29.9, and ≥30), smoking status (never, former <20 pack-years, former ≥20 pack-years, former with unknown pack-years, current <20 pack-years, and current ≥20 pack-years), hypertension (yes or no), hypercholesterolemia (yes or no), family history of diabetes (yes or no), family history of cardiovascular disease (CVD) (yes or no), history of diabetes (yes or no), history of CVD (yes or no), and history of cancer (yes or no).
Vestibular balance disorder was defined as ending the modified Romberg balance test at test condition 4 (the participant stands on a foam pad with closed eyes [visual input is removed] and maintains balance using only the vestibular system).
Visual/proprioceptive disorder was defined as ending the modified Romberg balance test at test conditions 1 to 3 (1: participant stands making use of all the sensory inputs that contribute to balance, including the central vestibular system, vision, and proprioception; 2: participant closes their eyes to eliminate visual input; and 3: participant must maintain their balance on a foam-padded surface).
Excluded participants with a history of CVD at baseline.
Excluded participants with a history of cancer at baseline.