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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Mar 1.
Published in final edited form as: Environ Mol Mutagen. 2021 Feb 6;62(3):185–202. doi: 10.1002/em.22425

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Fructose is converted into the two 3-carbon metabolites dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (Glyceraldehyde-3-P). Exogenous dihydroxyacetone (DHA) is integrated into 3-carbon metabolism by phosphorylation to DHAP by triose kinase\FMN-cyclase (TKFC). DHAP and Glyceraldehyde-3-P are interconverted by triose phosphate isomerase (TPI). Glyceraldehyde-3-P is converted by Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) to 1,3-Diphospho-glycerate. DHAP can also be directly converted to methylglyoxal by methylglyoxal synthase (MGS). Methylglyoxal and Diacylglycerol are advanced glycation end products (AGE) which can interact with the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), activate protein kinase c (PKC), or even damage cellular proteins. AGEs and other reactive species like reactive oxygen species (ROS) can induce DNA, RNA, and protein damage which are detrimental to cell health and can induce cell death. Human nomenclature for enzymes is used for this summary figure.